Perceptualand Motor Skills, 1991, 73, 191-194. O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1991
SEX DIFFERENCES I N SELF-CONCEPT AMONG AFRICAN ADOLESCENTS ',' TUNTUFYE S. MWAMWENDA UniversiQ of Transkei Summary.-To examine sex differences in self-concept among black African adolescents in Umtata, South Africa, 97 boys and girls whose mean ages were 18.0 and 17.7 yr., respectively, were drawn from St. John's College srudents who were in their final year of high school and were preparing for their f ~ n dyear and national matriculation examinations. On the Canadian Self-esteem Inventory mean scores obtained by girls and boys were not significantly different.
Self-concept refers to the way a person perceives himself and may be positive or negative as a function of one's own perception of self independently of others as well as interpretation of how one thinks he is perceived by others. Self-concept is developed from childhood to adulthood on the basis of a person's interaction with peers, parents, teachers, and on the various tasks or responsibilities a person is assigned and how well they are done. A person's self-concept is a major aspect of personal behaviour (Burns, 1979; Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda, 1987). Those whose self-concept is positive tend to be more successful in life, including academic study, than those who have a negative self-concept. From this context, Swift and Spirack (1978, p. 149) state: Some educational psychologists see one of the primary roles of the skillful teacher, especially in the elementary and secondary school years as being to promote and sustain a positive self-concept in the child.
While numerous studies have investigated the relationship between self-concept and academic achievement, few have examined sex differences in selfconcepts so in this study sex differences among African adolescents in Umtata, South Africa were assessed. Omizo, Hammett, Loffredo, and Michael (1981) studied a sample of 296 Mexican-American Standard Seven students among whom more boys (n = 168) had higher self-concepts than girls (n = 128). Similarly, Song and Hattie (1984) studied 537 and 611 Korean boys and girls randomly selected from schools in Seoul. They also reported that boys had higher self-concepts than girls. In Australia, research has shown that boys have more positive
'Address correspondence to Prof. T. S. Mwamwenda, University of Transkei, Private Bag X I , vnitra, Transkei, South Africa. I register m special thanks to Mrs. Lilly Cherian and Mr. Nyaniso Maqokolo for their assistance in X e collection of data. I am also grateful to Bernadette Mwamwenda for scorinp, the questionnaires.
192
T. S. MWAMWENDA
self-concepts than girls (Smith, 1978); however, some studies in the USA have indicated that girls in the age range of 8 to 13 years have more positive self-concepts than boys (Wylie, 1968). On the other hand, other research workers have observed differences between boys' and girls' self-concepts (Marsh, Relich, & Smith, 1983; Ezeilo, 1983). Marsh, et al. point out that for boys and girls attending single-sex schools no significant difference was observed, whereas in coeducational schools, "sex differences are accentuated in the direction of traditional sexual stereotypes" (p. 184). In her study of 226 Nigerian secondary and university students whose ages ranged from 14 to 50 years, Ezeilo (1983) observed that male and female subjects' self-concepts were comparable. Ezeilo's study appears to be one of the few studies that have examined Africans' sex differences in self-concept, so additional study in other parts of Africa is needed as cultural differences vary. METHOD
Sample The sample of 59 high school girls ranged in age from 15 to 22 years, with a mean of 17.7 yr. and a standard deviation of 1.8. There were 38 boys whose ages ranged from 16 to 25 years, with a mean of 18.0 and a standard deviation of 1.5. All the subjects were black Xhosa-speaking South Africans. Both boys and girls were in their final year of high school at St. John's College, one of the prestigious old high schools in the Municipality of Umtata, the capital of Transkei. While a small number of students were drawn from those who lived in the hostels, the rest were day students. The majority of students live in the urban area of Umtata, and only a few are from rural areas but live with relatives in the city during the school session. Although Xhosa is the subjects' first language, their knowledge of English, whlch is the medium of instruction for all subjects other than Afrikaans and Xhosa, is quite good. They experienced no problem responding to the questionnaire. Questionnaire The Canadian Self-esteem Inventory provided the measure of self-concept. The test, developed by Battle (1976), comprises 30 items to which the subject is asked to respond "yes" or "no." A positive self-concept is the sum of all the "yes" responses. Estimates of validity are reported by Battle as ranging from 0.81 to 0.89. Procedure Permission to administer the questionnaire was secured from the principal of the school. Following this, one of the teachers responsible for teaching science was asked to administer the questionnaire to two of her classes. The
AFRICAN CHILDREN'S SELF-CONCEPT
193
students were given the necessary instruction before answering the questionnaire, which took about fifteen minutes.
RESULTSAND DISCUSSION The girls' mean score on the Canadian Self-esteem Inventory was 20.2, with a standard deviation of 3.4, which compared with the mean of 19.6 and a standard deviation of 4.2 for boys. The Student t test was used to assess sex differences in self-concept. The calculated value was less than the criterion value at p = .05, indicating no difference in self-concept between boys and girls. This lack of difference in self-concept among these African boys and girls confirms and contradicts what prior researchers have reported both in Africa and Western countries. Studies that have shown boys or girls (Wylie, 1968; Smith, 1978) have a higher mean self-concept were not confirmed by this study. The same holds true for the studies based on Mexicans, Americans, and Koreans, wherein boys had higher mean self-concept than girls (Omizo, et al., 1981; Song & Hattie, 1984). The present finding is consistent with those of Ezeilo (1983) and Marsh, et al. (1983) who noted no sex difference. The fact that the girls grew up in a culture where women are not considered equal with men appears to have had no significant effect on their mean self-concept. Further, that girls in coeducational schools tend to have a lower self-concept than those in single-sex schools was not supported. The lack of a sex difference in self-concept may be partly attributed to exposure to education as Ezeilo (1983) argued in her study of Nigerian subjects. There is no question that exposure to education fosters positive self-concept (Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda, 1987; Mwamwenda, 1989). Both boys and girls in Transkeian schools are expected to work hard and pass their National examinations in the final year of high school as a springboard into institutions of higher learning, professional, and trade skills training, or work at large. The expectations that their parents and teachers have for both boys and girls are more or less the same and so likely to contribute positively to self-concept. It is doubtful that were it not for education as an equaliser in self-concept and opportunities girls' self-concepts would not be comparable to boys' in a society where women are considered unequal with men. REFERENCES
BATTLE, J. Test-retest reliability of the Canadian Self-esteem Inventory for Children. Psychological Reports, 1976, 38, 1343-1345. BURNS, R. B. The self-concept: theory, measurement, development and behauiour. London: Longman, 1979. EZEILO,B. N. Age, sex and self-concepts in a NIBerlan population. International Journal of Behavioural Deuelopment, 1983, 6 , 497-502 MARSH,H. W., XELICH,J. D., & SMITH, I. D. Self-concept: the construct validity of interpretations based upon the SDQ. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1983, 4 5 , 173-178.
194
T. S. MWAMWENDA
MWAMWENDA, T. S. Educational psychology: an Ahican perrpective. Durban: Butterworths, 1989. MWAMWENDA, T. S., & MWAMWENDA, B. B. Self-concept and academic achievement on Botswana primary school-leaving examinations. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1987, 65, 71-75. OMIZO,M. M., HAMMETT, V. L., LOFFREDO, D. A., & MICHAEL, W. B. The dimensions of seU-concept as predictors of academic achievement among Mexican-American junior high school students. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1981, 41, 835-842. SMITH, I. D. Sex differences in seU-concept revisited. Australian Psychologist, 1978, 13, 161166. SONG,I., & H A ~J. , Home environment, self-concept, and academic achievement: a casual modelling approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1984, 76, 1269-1281. S m , M. S., & SPIRACK,G. Alternative teaching strakgies: a guide for teachers and psychologisk. Champaign, IL: Research Press, 1978. WYLE, R. C. The resent status of self-theory. I n E. F, Bogatta & W. W. Lambert (Eds.), Handbook orpersonality, theory and research. Chicago, IL Rand McNally, 1968. Pp. 728-787.
Accepted July 22, 1771.
SEX DIFFERENCES I N SELF-CONCEPT AMONG AFRICAN ADOLESCENTS ',' TUNTUFYE S. MWAMWENDA UniversiQ of Transkei Summary.-To examine sex differences in self-concept among black African adolescents in Umtata, South Africa, 97 boys and girls whose mean ages were 18.0 and 17.7 yr., respectively, were drawn from St. John's College srudents who were in their final year of high school and were preparing for their f ~ n dyear and national matriculation examinations. On the Canadian Self-esteem Inventory mean scores obtained by girls and boys were not significantly different.
Self-concept refers to the way a person perceives himself and may be positive or negative as a function of one's own perception of self independently of others as well as interpretation of how one thinks he is perceived by others. Self-concept is developed from childhood to adulthood on the basis of a person's interaction with peers, parents, teachers, and on the various tasks or responsibilities a person is assigned and how well they are done. A person's self-concept is a major aspect of personal behaviour (Burns, 1979; Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda, 1987). Those whose self-concept is positive tend to be more successful in life, including academic study, than those who have a negative self-concept. From this context, Swift and Spirack (1978, p. 149) state: Some educational psychologists see one of the primary roles of the skillful teacher, especially in the elementary and secondary school years as being to promote and sustain a positive self-concept in the child.
While numerous studies have investigated the relationship between self-concept and academic achievement, few have examined sex differences in selfconcepts so in this study sex differences among African adolescents in Umtata, South Africa were assessed. Omizo, Hammett, Loffredo, and Michael (1981) studied a sample of 296 Mexican-American Standard Seven students among whom more boys (n = 168) had higher self-concepts than girls (n = 128). Similarly, Song and Hattie (1984) studied 537 and 611 Korean boys and girls randomly selected from schools in Seoul. They also reported that boys had higher self-concepts than girls. In Australia, research has shown that boys have more positive
'Address correspondence to Prof. T. S. Mwamwenda, University of Transkei, Private Bag X I , vnitra, Transkei, South Africa. I register m special thanks to Mrs. Lilly Cherian and Mr. Nyaniso Maqokolo for their assistance in X e collection of data. I am also grateful to Bernadette Mwamwenda for scorinp, the questionnaires.
192
T. S. MWAMWENDA
self-concepts than girls (Smith, 1978); however, some studies in the USA have indicated that girls in the age range of 8 to 13 years have more positive self-concepts than boys (Wylie, 1968). On the other hand, other research workers have observed differences between boys' and girls' self-concepts (Marsh, Relich, & Smith, 1983; Ezeilo, 1983). Marsh, et al. point out that for boys and girls attending single-sex schools no significant difference was observed, whereas in coeducational schools, "sex differences are accentuated in the direction of traditional sexual stereotypes" (p. 184). In her study of 226 Nigerian secondary and university students whose ages ranged from 14 to 50 years, Ezeilo (1983) observed that male and female subjects' self-concepts were comparable. Ezeilo's study appears to be one of the few studies that have examined Africans' sex differences in self-concept, so additional study in other parts of Africa is needed as cultural differences vary. METHOD
Sample The sample of 59 high school girls ranged in age from 15 to 22 years, with a mean of 17.7 yr. and a standard deviation of 1.8. There were 38 boys whose ages ranged from 16 to 25 years, with a mean of 18.0 and a standard deviation of 1.5. All the subjects were black Xhosa-speaking South Africans. Both boys and girls were in their final year of high school at St. John's College, one of the prestigious old high schools in the Municipality of Umtata, the capital of Transkei. While a small number of students were drawn from those who lived in the hostels, the rest were day students. The majority of students live in the urban area of Umtata, and only a few are from rural areas but live with relatives in the city during the school session. Although Xhosa is the subjects' first language, their knowledge of English, whlch is the medium of instruction for all subjects other than Afrikaans and Xhosa, is quite good. They experienced no problem responding to the questionnaire. Questionnaire The Canadian Self-esteem Inventory provided the measure of self-concept. The test, developed by Battle (1976), comprises 30 items to which the subject is asked to respond "yes" or "no." A positive self-concept is the sum of all the "yes" responses. Estimates of validity are reported by Battle as ranging from 0.81 to 0.89. Procedure Permission to administer the questionnaire was secured from the principal of the school. Following this, one of the teachers responsible for teaching science was asked to administer the questionnaire to two of her classes. The
AFRICAN CHILDREN'S SELF-CONCEPT
193
students were given the necessary instruction before answering the questionnaire, which took about fifteen minutes.
RESULTSAND DISCUSSION The girls' mean score on the Canadian Self-esteem Inventory was 20.2, with a standard deviation of 3.4, which compared with the mean of 19.6 and a standard deviation of 4.2 for boys. The Student t test was used to assess sex differences in self-concept. The calculated value was less than the criterion value at p = .05, indicating no difference in self-concept between boys and girls. This lack of difference in self-concept among these African boys and girls confirms and contradicts what prior researchers have reported both in Africa and Western countries. Studies that have shown boys or girls (Wylie, 1968; Smith, 1978) have a higher mean self-concept were not confirmed by this study. The same holds true for the studies based on Mexicans, Americans, and Koreans, wherein boys had higher mean self-concept than girls (Omizo, et al., 1981; Song & Hattie, 1984). The present finding is consistent with those of Ezeilo (1983) and Marsh, et al. (1983) who noted no sex difference. The fact that the girls grew up in a culture where women are not considered equal with men appears to have had no significant effect on their mean self-concept. Further, that girls in coeducational schools tend to have a lower self-concept than those in single-sex schools was not supported. The lack of a sex difference in self-concept may be partly attributed to exposure to education as Ezeilo (1983) argued in her study of Nigerian subjects. There is no question that exposure to education fosters positive self-concept (Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda, 1987; Mwamwenda, 1989). Both boys and girls in Transkeian schools are expected to work hard and pass their National examinations in the final year of high school as a springboard into institutions of higher learning, professional, and trade skills training, or work at large. The expectations that their parents and teachers have for both boys and girls are more or less the same and so likely to contribute positively to self-concept. It is doubtful that were it not for education as an equaliser in self-concept and opportunities girls' self-concepts would not be comparable to boys' in a society where women are considered unequal with men. REFERENCES
BATTLE, J. Test-retest reliability of the Canadian Self-esteem Inventory for Children. Psychological Reports, 1976, 38, 1343-1345. BURNS, R. B. The self-concept: theory, measurement, development and behauiour. London: Longman, 1979. EZEILO,B. N. Age, sex and self-concepts in a NIBerlan population. International Journal of Behavioural Deuelopment, 1983, 6 , 497-502 MARSH,H. W., XELICH,J. D., & SMITH, I. D. Self-concept: the construct validity of interpretations based upon the SDQ. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1983, 4 5 , 173-178.
194
T. S. MWAMWENDA
MWAMWENDA, T. S. Educational psychology: an Ahican perrpective. Durban: Butterworths, 1989. MWAMWENDA, T. S., & MWAMWENDA, B. B. Self-concept and academic achievement on Botswana primary school-leaving examinations. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1987, 65, 71-75. OMIZO,M. M., HAMMETT, V. L., LOFFREDO, D. A., & MICHAEL, W. B. The dimensions of seU-concept as predictors of academic achievement among Mexican-American junior high school students. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1981, 41, 835-842. SMITH, I. D. Sex differences in seU-concept revisited. Australian Psychologist, 1978, 13, 161166. SONG,I., & H A ~J. , Home environment, self-concept, and academic achievement: a casual modelling approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1984, 76, 1269-1281. S m , M. S., & SPIRACK,G. Alternative teaching strakgies: a guide for teachers and psychologisk. Champaign, IL: Research Press, 1978. WYLE, R. C. The resent status of self-theory. I n E. F, Bogatta & W. W. Lambert (Eds.), Handbook orpersonality, theory and research. Chicago, IL Rand McNally, 1968. Pp. 728-787.
Accepted July 22, 1771.
