JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY & BIOLOGY EDUCATION, December 2014, p. 88-92 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v15i2.849
Theme: Scientific Ethics
Smart Teaching Matters! Applying the Research on Learning to Teaching RCR Camille Nebeker Department of Family & Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego
Requirements for educating the next generation of scientists in the responsible conduct of research (RCR) were published approximately 25 years ago. Over the years, an extensive collection of research ethics educational resources have been developed, most of which are available to the scientific community. We can use these resources to effect change in student learning about responsible and ethical research practices; however, research on RCR educational effectiveness reveals mixed results. Rather than assume ethics education is ineffective, perhaps we should examine whether we are making the best use of these training tools and resources when teaching RCR. Connecting the body of knowledge on how people learn with how we teach research ethics may be a solution to improving student-learning outcomes associated with research ethics education. This essay provides a brief review of the research on human learning and introduces practical tips for connecting evidence-based principles to RCR teaching. Next steps involve RCR educators planning empirical research to support the application of research-informed practices to teaching research ethics.
INTRODUCTION Practicing responsible and ethical research is necessary for obvious reasons, not the least being to earn the trust of the public who stands to benefit from scientific discovery. Nearly 25 years ago, federal mandates were published announcing requirements for training in the responsible conduct of research (RCR) for select trainees (23). Within the past five years, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) published an update for RCR training and the National Science Foundation (NSF) published plans to implement RCR requirements associated with the America COMPETES Act (24, 25). Federal training requirements have led to the development of an extensive number of RCR educational resources, including curricula, textbooks and on-line resources, to aid in the teaching of research ethics (10, 11, 17). In spite of having access to excellent resources to support RCR teaching, the findings are mixed regarding whether RCR education is effective (2, 3, 13, 28). The regulations provide guidance on content yet allow institutions latitude in determining how best to respond to training requirements
Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Family & Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0725. Phone: 858-534-7786. Fax: 858-534-4642. E-mail: [email protected].
(28). This autonomy has resulted in RCR programs that vary considerably in goals, scope, content, and approaches and may explain the challenge in assessing efficacy (12, 13, 28); however, lackluster student learning outcomes may be more indicative of a problem with how RCR educators approach teaching and learning (14, 19, 25, 26). McGee et al. (20) questioned whether the unimpressive RCR outcomes could be attributed to instructional design or course delivery. While lecture and discussion are typically used when teaching RCR, some educators are beginning to engage students through interactive, problembased, and experiential learning methods (5, 7, 9, 12, 19, 28). Instructional approaches that actively engage students in the learning process (e.g., role play, debate, peer-teaching) are congruent with the literature on human learning and successful teaching approaches. Understanding the science of learning can shed light on several key points including: 1) why these approaches work, 2) how to align teaching strategies with course goals, and 3) how to use formative assessment to monitor student learning.
RESEARCH ON LEARNING The research on human learning supports the use of teaching strategies that engage the learner with opportunities to practice new skills, experience mistakes, and reflect on these experiences as a method to connect student understanding and subsequent transfer of concepts to practice
©2014 Author(s). Published by the American Society for Microbiology. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ and https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode), which grants the public the nonexclusive right to copy, distribute, or display the published work.
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NEBEKER: SMART TEACHING—TEACHING RCR
(1, 6). Understanding what is known about human learning can assist educators in making informed decisions about teaching and in intentionally aligning a teaching approach with learning goals. The empirical evidence on human learning has increased dramatically over the past 50 years as a result of extensive interdisciplinary scientific discovery (1, 6). Developments in educational research have resulted in more focused discussions on how to apply the research to instructional design. For example, we know that learning is a social process that requires interaction and collaboration (29); subsequently, choosing a teaching strategy that involves group collaborative projects may be appropriate for encouraging conversation and problem solving associated with ethical dimensions of research. We know that understanding occurs through reflective practice (22); therefore, creating opportunities for students to think about what they are learning and to question what is unclear about responsible research practices should be encouraged. Research shows that students are most motivated to learn when the subject matter is connected to personal and professional interests (16); as such, conveying why learning about ethical and responsible practices is important to professional success in academic research should be conveyed early in RCR education. Evidence supports that conceptual understanding is enhanced when connected to practice (18). Employing teaching strategies that engage the student in experiential and project-based learning activities will facilitate connection of learning to practice. In 2000, The National Academies Press published a model for designing the optimal learning environment, which is grounded in over a half-century of research on human learning (6). More recently, Ambrose et al. (1) added to this body of research by connecting seven research-based principles that can be used to guide post-secondary teaching. The research on evidence-based practices combined with personal experience teaching RCR to a broad range of students has contributed to a framework that guides my teaching about research ethics. Several tips that inform my teaching about RCR follow:
RESEARCH ON LEARNING APPLIED TO RCR Tip 1: Facilitate investment and motivation Learning something new is challenging, and student motivation is one of the most important elements to facilitating the learning process. Recognizing what is being taught, why it is being taught, and expected competencies are critical elements for learning (1, 6). When students understand the purpose of acquiring new knowledge, they are more likely to be self-directed and motivated to learn. Ambrose and colleagues (1) encourage teachers to design instruction so that it is relevant and of interest to the student. If you are not sure what students will find of interest, it never hurts to ask them. When they have some choice and control over what is being taught, students become more invested in the Volume 15, Number 2
learning process, which also contributes to increased motivation. Likewise, it is important that students understand what they need to do to demonstrate a mastery of the subject matter. When teaching research ethics, we want to consider what constitutes a novice learner and what we would need to see to identify whether a higher level of competency has been achieved. For example, if a course goal is for students to improve their ability to identify and analyze an ethically charged situation, this expectation needs to be clear to both the instructor and the student. Likewise, course evaluation metrics must be clearly aligned with the skills and behavior that demonstrate improvement. Making course goals explicit and including opportunities for practice and feedback that will build student success and confidence will, likewise, facilitate motivation. Tip 2: Connect RCR to professional success While it is important to know the course purpose, goals, and objectives, students need to know how RCR relates directly to their professional success. Rather than launch the course by telling students about requirements and rules, it is helpful to incorporate examples of how knowing about RCR will be a useful tool in navigating professional challenges by using authentic and realistic examples that reflect day-to-day ethical challenges. When teaching RCR, I ask students to identify the five most important aspects of planning, conducting, and reporting research that they need to know to be successful in their work. Not surprisingly, students tend to describe core elements of responsible and ethical research practices (e.g., appropriate research design, managing bias, promoting a collaborative environment, sound data management strategies). Having time to reflect on what is needed to succeed in a research profession creates the opportunity to engage students in discussion of RCR based on their interests. Learning about the students—their educational background, prior exposure to research ethics, and experiences with day-to-day ethical challenges—can also reveal examples of questionable behaviors among research mentors who are successful by conventional standards. These challenges must also be addressed in an honest manner. Tip 3: Engage students in goal setting to increase commitment To increase personal responsibility for learning, the evidence supports engaging students in setting personal goals and collective goals for the course (1). The process of goal setting is intended to encourage students to take responsibility for determining what they want to learn about research ethics and identify priority areas. Based on personal experience, student-generated goals typically include, for example: 1) learning about regulations, standards, and norms related to their discipline; 2) knowing how to avoid behaving in a manner that would discredit their work;
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3) understanding how research ethics is practiced in their discipline and how that might vary across disciplines; and 4) knowing appropriate ways to respond if observing questionable practices. This process of collectively setting goals and priorities creates a sense of responsibility and ownership for learning. Prioritizing RCR topics covered during the course based on student interest can also be valuable for creating motivated and interested students. Needless to say, the instructor is the expert and determines the final course plan. Tip 4: Know that preconceptions influence learning Students’ prior experiences in classes and/or daily life contribute to what they know and to their perceptions about what they need to learn (1, 6). When learning, students naturally draw upon their foundation of experience to guide and filter the process of making sense of new information. Researchers have recognized that understanding the learner’s prior experience is critical for acknowledging both correct and inaccurate perceptions specific to RCR (20). RCR instructors can benefit by recognizing that students have some prior research experience and those experiences, both good and bad, will influence learning about responsible and ethical research practices. Ambrose and colleagues (1) recommend conducting a short and low-stakes assessment to get a sense of knowledge, facts, concepts, and overall familiarity with the subject matter; however, this can also happen through group discussion, brainstorming, and reflective writing exercises. Tip 5: Apply student-centered teaching and learning Student-centered learning is heavily influenced by social constructivist ideology advanced over the past century (21). Social constructivism is most closely aligned with developmental theories advanced by the likes of Lev Vygotsky (29), Albert Bandura (4), and Jerome Bruner (8), who believed that people make sense of the environment and create meaning or understanding through their interactions with others. The constructivist orientation when applied to teaching shifts the instructor’s role from that of a lecturer to one who facilitates the learning process using methods typically associated with experiential learning and reflective practice (21). These methods are carried out using a variety of tools that complement RCR instruction, including, for example, case analysis, case building, role-play, journal writing, collaborative group projects, and interactive lectures. An important aspect of the student-centered approach is that authentic engagement is a critical factor for learning and lecture is typically limited to information the trainee/ student cannot acquire independently (1, 6). Tip 6: Align teaching strategies with learning objectives It is important to identify course objectives and learning outcomes in order to assess whether teaching strategies 90
are accomplishing the intended goals. Course objectives can be achieved using a variety of teaching tools and strategies that actively engage students in the process of learning about the day-to-day ethical dimensions of research (e.g., case-based reasoning, current events, role play, debate, and student-led instruction). For example, if a course goal is for students to recognize the value of staying current on matters that influence research integrity, teaching strategies selected should create opportunities for students to actively practice the skills that foster self-directed learning (e.g., identify the problem, synthesize the literature, identify gaps, etc.). If a goal is for students to increase awareness of the ethical dimensions of research, reviewing case studies that are relevant to the student’s research environment, applying a framework to analyze the case, followed by group discussion may be a good teaching strategy; however other strategies may also be effective. Regardless of the teaching strategy selected, it should be intentional and connected to the learning objective so that the desired outcomes can be evaluated. Tip 7: Implement formative assessment and feedback The goals of formative and summative assessment are different. Formative assessment is used to guide instruction by making the learning process more visible for both the student and instructor and occurs while teaching. Summative assessment occurs when the course is complete and confirms whether predetermined benchmarks were achieved (15). When teaching RCR, formative assessment techniques are used to monitor student learning so that it is clear what students understand. Knowing how students are thinking about the content and application of concepts in practice allows instructors to address misconceptions and make adjustments to their instructional design. Short writing assignments, problem-solving frameworks, and checklists are tools that students can use to self-monitor their learning when completing assignments (14, 15). Formative assessment is an essential part of determining the extent to which instructional strategies map to learning objectives and whether the instructional technique connects to desired student-learning outcomes.
CONCLUSION While there is no shortage of research ethics educational resources, the effectiveness of RCR training is questionable. Rather than assume ethics education is ineffective, we should first consider whether we are effectively utilizing these resources when teaching RCR. The literature clearly demonstrates that the application of evidence-based principles in education is associated with improved student learning; however, it is unclear whether RCR teachers are applying these principles when designing instruction. This essay briefly introduced the research
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NEBEKER: SMART TEACHING—TEACHING RCR
on human learning and described several practical tips for connecting evidence-based principles to RCR teaching. A few RCR-specific studies have revealed the importance of preconceptions and misconceptions on research ethics and students’ ability to learn (20), the importance of aligning learning outcomes with instructional strategies, and the value of formative assessment to guide instruction (14, 15, 26, 27). These studies shed light on how the science of learning can inform effective teaching about responsible and ethical conduct of research. Clearly, additional educational research is needed that applies the research on learning to teaching about research ethics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The work presented in this paper was supported in part by a National Science Foundation (NSF) Ethics Education in Science and Engineering (EESE) award (Award Number: 0932795; Award Period: 2009–2013). The content and opinions presented within this paper are those of the author and do not reflect official views of the NSF. The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.
REFERENCES 1. Ambrose, S. A., M. W. Bridges, M. DiPietro, M. C. Lovett, and M. K. Norman. 2010. How learning works: 7 research-based principles for smart teaching. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. 2. Anderson, M. S., A. S. Horn, K. R. Risbey, E. A. Ronning, R. DeVries, and B. C. Martinson. 2007. What do mentoring and training in the responsible conduct of research have to do with scientists’ misbehavior? Findings from a national survey of NIH-funded scientists. Acad. Med. 82(9):853–860. 3. Antes, A. L., et al. 2009. A meta-analysis of ethics instruction effectiveness in the sciences. Ethics Behav. 19(5):379–402. 4. Bandura, A. 1977. Social learning theory. General Learning Press, New York, NY. 5. Berry, R. M., J. Borenstein, and R. J. Butera. 2013. Contentious problems in bioscience and biotechnology: a pilot study of an approach to ethics education. Sci. Eng. Ethics 19(2):653–668. 6. Bransford, J. D., A. L. Brown, and R. R. Cocking (ed.). 2000. How people learn: brain, mind, experience, and school (expanded ed.). The National Academies Press, Washington, DC. 7. Brummel, B. J., C. K. Gunsalus, K. L. Anderson, and M. C. Loui. 2010. Development of role-play scenarios for teaching responsible conduct of research. Sci. Eng. Ethics 16(3):573–589. 8. Brunner, J. 1997. The culture of education. Harvard University Press, Boston, MA. 9. DeBruin, D. A., et al. 2007. Educational approaches to the responsible conduct of research: an exploratory study. Acad. Med. 82(1):32–39. Volume 15, Number 2
10. DuBois, J. M., D. A. Schilling, E. Heitman, N. H. Steneck, and A . A . Kon. 2010. Instruction in the responsible conduct of research: an inventory of programs and materials within CTSAs. Clin. Transl. Sci. 3(3):109–111. 11. Heitman, E., and R. E. Bulger. 2005. Assessing the educational literature in the responsible conduct of research for core content. Account. Res. 12(3):207–224. 12. Kalichman, M. W. 2007. Responding to challenges in education for the responsible conduct of research. Acad. Med. 82(9):870–875. 13. Kalichman, M. W. 2013. A brief history of RCR education. Account. Res. 20(5–6):380–394. 14. Keefer, M. W. 2012. The importance of formative assessment and curricular alignment in professional ethics education: some practical tools. CORE Iss. Prof. Res. Ethics 1(2). 15. Keefer, M. W., S. E. Wilson, H. Dankowicz, and M. C. Loui. 2014. The importance of formative assessment in science and engineering ethics education: some evidence and practical advice. Sci. Eng. Ethics 20:249–260. 16. Knowles, M. S. 1984. Andragogy in action: applying modern principles of adult education. Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA. 17. Kon, A. A., D. A. Schilling, E. Heitman, N. Steneck, and J. M. DuBois. 2011. Content analysis of major textbooks and online resources used in responsible conduct of research instruction. AJOB Primary Research 2(1):42–46. 18. Lave, J., and E. Wenger. 1991. Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 19. Macrina, F. L. April 2011. Undergraduate education in the responsible conduct of research. ASBMB Today [Online.] http://www.asbmb.org/asbmbtoday/asbmbtoday _article. aspx?id=12236. 20. McGee, R., J. Almquist, J. L. Keller, and S. J. Jacobsen. 2008. Teaching and learning responsible research conduct: influences of prior experiences on acceptance of new ideas. Account. Res. 15(1):30–62. 21. Merriam, S. B., R. S. Caffarella, and L. M. Baumgartner. 2007. Learning in adulthood: a comprehensive guide. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., San Francisco, CA. 22. Mezirow, J. 1991. Transformative dimensions of adult learning. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. 23. National Institutes of Health. 1989. Requirements for programs on the responsible conduct of research in national research service award institutional training programs. Guide for Grants and Contracts on December 22, 1989, 18(45):1. [Online.] http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/ historical/1989_12_22_Vol_18_No_45.pdf. 24. National Institutes of Health. 2009. Update on the requirement for instruction in the responsible conduct of research. Notice Number: NOT-OD-10-019. [Online.] http:// grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/not-od-10-019.html. 25. National Science Foundation. 2010. Responsible conduct of research in grantee standards. http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/ policydocs/pappguide/nsf10_1/aag_4.jsp#IVB. 26. Nebeker, C. 2013. Potential impact of learning theories on lifelong learning of responsible conduct of research (RCR). ORI Newsletter 21(2):1–8.
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28. Steneck, N. H., and R. E. Bulger. 2007. The history, purpose, and future of instruction in the responsible conduct of research. Acad. Med. 82(9):829–834. 29. Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
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Volume 15, Number 2
Theme: Scientific Ethics
Smart Teaching Matters! Applying the Research on Learning to Teaching RCR Camille Nebeker Department of Family & Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego
Requirements for educating the next generation of scientists in the responsible conduct of research (RCR) were published approximately 25 years ago. Over the years, an extensive collection of research ethics educational resources have been developed, most of which are available to the scientific community. We can use these resources to effect change in student learning about responsible and ethical research practices; however, research on RCR educational effectiveness reveals mixed results. Rather than assume ethics education is ineffective, perhaps we should examine whether we are making the best use of these training tools and resources when teaching RCR. Connecting the body of knowledge on how people learn with how we teach research ethics may be a solution to improving student-learning outcomes associated with research ethics education. This essay provides a brief review of the research on human learning and introduces practical tips for connecting evidence-based principles to RCR teaching. Next steps involve RCR educators planning empirical research to support the application of research-informed practices to teaching research ethics.
INTRODUCTION Practicing responsible and ethical research is necessary for obvious reasons, not the least being to earn the trust of the public who stands to benefit from scientific discovery. Nearly 25 years ago, federal mandates were published announcing requirements for training in the responsible conduct of research (RCR) for select trainees (23). Within the past five years, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) published an update for RCR training and the National Science Foundation (NSF) published plans to implement RCR requirements associated with the America COMPETES Act (24, 25). Federal training requirements have led to the development of an extensive number of RCR educational resources, including curricula, textbooks and on-line resources, to aid in the teaching of research ethics (10, 11, 17). In spite of having access to excellent resources to support RCR teaching, the findings are mixed regarding whether RCR education is effective (2, 3, 13, 28). The regulations provide guidance on content yet allow institutions latitude in determining how best to respond to training requirements
Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Family & Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0725. Phone: 858-534-7786. Fax: 858-534-4642. E-mail: [email protected].
(28). This autonomy has resulted in RCR programs that vary considerably in goals, scope, content, and approaches and may explain the challenge in assessing efficacy (12, 13, 28); however, lackluster student learning outcomes may be more indicative of a problem with how RCR educators approach teaching and learning (14, 19, 25, 26). McGee et al. (20) questioned whether the unimpressive RCR outcomes could be attributed to instructional design or course delivery. While lecture and discussion are typically used when teaching RCR, some educators are beginning to engage students through interactive, problembased, and experiential learning methods (5, 7, 9, 12, 19, 28). Instructional approaches that actively engage students in the learning process (e.g., role play, debate, peer-teaching) are congruent with the literature on human learning and successful teaching approaches. Understanding the science of learning can shed light on several key points including: 1) why these approaches work, 2) how to align teaching strategies with course goals, and 3) how to use formative assessment to monitor student learning.
RESEARCH ON LEARNING The research on human learning supports the use of teaching strategies that engage the learner with opportunities to practice new skills, experience mistakes, and reflect on these experiences as a method to connect student understanding and subsequent transfer of concepts to practice
©2014 Author(s). Published by the American Society for Microbiology. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ and https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode), which grants the public the nonexclusive right to copy, distribute, or display the published work.
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Volume 15, Number 12
NEBEKER: SMART TEACHING—TEACHING RCR
(1, 6). Understanding what is known about human learning can assist educators in making informed decisions about teaching and in intentionally aligning a teaching approach with learning goals. The empirical evidence on human learning has increased dramatically over the past 50 years as a result of extensive interdisciplinary scientific discovery (1, 6). Developments in educational research have resulted in more focused discussions on how to apply the research to instructional design. For example, we know that learning is a social process that requires interaction and collaboration (29); subsequently, choosing a teaching strategy that involves group collaborative projects may be appropriate for encouraging conversation and problem solving associated with ethical dimensions of research. We know that understanding occurs through reflective practice (22); therefore, creating opportunities for students to think about what they are learning and to question what is unclear about responsible research practices should be encouraged. Research shows that students are most motivated to learn when the subject matter is connected to personal and professional interests (16); as such, conveying why learning about ethical and responsible practices is important to professional success in academic research should be conveyed early in RCR education. Evidence supports that conceptual understanding is enhanced when connected to practice (18). Employing teaching strategies that engage the student in experiential and project-based learning activities will facilitate connection of learning to practice. In 2000, The National Academies Press published a model for designing the optimal learning environment, which is grounded in over a half-century of research on human learning (6). More recently, Ambrose et al. (1) added to this body of research by connecting seven research-based principles that can be used to guide post-secondary teaching. The research on evidence-based practices combined with personal experience teaching RCR to a broad range of students has contributed to a framework that guides my teaching about research ethics. Several tips that inform my teaching about RCR follow:
RESEARCH ON LEARNING APPLIED TO RCR Tip 1: Facilitate investment and motivation Learning something new is challenging, and student motivation is one of the most important elements to facilitating the learning process. Recognizing what is being taught, why it is being taught, and expected competencies are critical elements for learning (1, 6). When students understand the purpose of acquiring new knowledge, they are more likely to be self-directed and motivated to learn. Ambrose and colleagues (1) encourage teachers to design instruction so that it is relevant and of interest to the student. If you are not sure what students will find of interest, it never hurts to ask them. When they have some choice and control over what is being taught, students become more invested in the Volume 15, Number 2
learning process, which also contributes to increased motivation. Likewise, it is important that students understand what they need to do to demonstrate a mastery of the subject matter. When teaching research ethics, we want to consider what constitutes a novice learner and what we would need to see to identify whether a higher level of competency has been achieved. For example, if a course goal is for students to improve their ability to identify and analyze an ethically charged situation, this expectation needs to be clear to both the instructor and the student. Likewise, course evaluation metrics must be clearly aligned with the skills and behavior that demonstrate improvement. Making course goals explicit and including opportunities for practice and feedback that will build student success and confidence will, likewise, facilitate motivation. Tip 2: Connect RCR to professional success While it is important to know the course purpose, goals, and objectives, students need to know how RCR relates directly to their professional success. Rather than launch the course by telling students about requirements and rules, it is helpful to incorporate examples of how knowing about RCR will be a useful tool in navigating professional challenges by using authentic and realistic examples that reflect day-to-day ethical challenges. When teaching RCR, I ask students to identify the five most important aspects of planning, conducting, and reporting research that they need to know to be successful in their work. Not surprisingly, students tend to describe core elements of responsible and ethical research practices (e.g., appropriate research design, managing bias, promoting a collaborative environment, sound data management strategies). Having time to reflect on what is needed to succeed in a research profession creates the opportunity to engage students in discussion of RCR based on their interests. Learning about the students—their educational background, prior exposure to research ethics, and experiences with day-to-day ethical challenges—can also reveal examples of questionable behaviors among research mentors who are successful by conventional standards. These challenges must also be addressed in an honest manner. Tip 3: Engage students in goal setting to increase commitment To increase personal responsibility for learning, the evidence supports engaging students in setting personal goals and collective goals for the course (1). The process of goal setting is intended to encourage students to take responsibility for determining what they want to learn about research ethics and identify priority areas. Based on personal experience, student-generated goals typically include, for example: 1) learning about regulations, standards, and norms related to their discipline; 2) knowing how to avoid behaving in a manner that would discredit their work;
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3) understanding how research ethics is practiced in their discipline and how that might vary across disciplines; and 4) knowing appropriate ways to respond if observing questionable practices. This process of collectively setting goals and priorities creates a sense of responsibility and ownership for learning. Prioritizing RCR topics covered during the course based on student interest can also be valuable for creating motivated and interested students. Needless to say, the instructor is the expert and determines the final course plan. Tip 4: Know that preconceptions influence learning Students’ prior experiences in classes and/or daily life contribute to what they know and to their perceptions about what they need to learn (1, 6). When learning, students naturally draw upon their foundation of experience to guide and filter the process of making sense of new information. Researchers have recognized that understanding the learner’s prior experience is critical for acknowledging both correct and inaccurate perceptions specific to RCR (20). RCR instructors can benefit by recognizing that students have some prior research experience and those experiences, both good and bad, will influence learning about responsible and ethical research practices. Ambrose and colleagues (1) recommend conducting a short and low-stakes assessment to get a sense of knowledge, facts, concepts, and overall familiarity with the subject matter; however, this can also happen through group discussion, brainstorming, and reflective writing exercises. Tip 5: Apply student-centered teaching and learning Student-centered learning is heavily influenced by social constructivist ideology advanced over the past century (21). Social constructivism is most closely aligned with developmental theories advanced by the likes of Lev Vygotsky (29), Albert Bandura (4), and Jerome Bruner (8), who believed that people make sense of the environment and create meaning or understanding through their interactions with others. The constructivist orientation when applied to teaching shifts the instructor’s role from that of a lecturer to one who facilitates the learning process using methods typically associated with experiential learning and reflective practice (21). These methods are carried out using a variety of tools that complement RCR instruction, including, for example, case analysis, case building, role-play, journal writing, collaborative group projects, and interactive lectures. An important aspect of the student-centered approach is that authentic engagement is a critical factor for learning and lecture is typically limited to information the trainee/ student cannot acquire independently (1, 6). Tip 6: Align teaching strategies with learning objectives It is important to identify course objectives and learning outcomes in order to assess whether teaching strategies 90
are accomplishing the intended goals. Course objectives can be achieved using a variety of teaching tools and strategies that actively engage students in the process of learning about the day-to-day ethical dimensions of research (e.g., case-based reasoning, current events, role play, debate, and student-led instruction). For example, if a course goal is for students to recognize the value of staying current on matters that influence research integrity, teaching strategies selected should create opportunities for students to actively practice the skills that foster self-directed learning (e.g., identify the problem, synthesize the literature, identify gaps, etc.). If a goal is for students to increase awareness of the ethical dimensions of research, reviewing case studies that are relevant to the student’s research environment, applying a framework to analyze the case, followed by group discussion may be a good teaching strategy; however other strategies may also be effective. Regardless of the teaching strategy selected, it should be intentional and connected to the learning objective so that the desired outcomes can be evaluated. Tip 7: Implement formative assessment and feedback The goals of formative and summative assessment are different. Formative assessment is used to guide instruction by making the learning process more visible for both the student and instructor and occurs while teaching. Summative assessment occurs when the course is complete and confirms whether predetermined benchmarks were achieved (15). When teaching RCR, formative assessment techniques are used to monitor student learning so that it is clear what students understand. Knowing how students are thinking about the content and application of concepts in practice allows instructors to address misconceptions and make adjustments to their instructional design. Short writing assignments, problem-solving frameworks, and checklists are tools that students can use to self-monitor their learning when completing assignments (14, 15). Formative assessment is an essential part of determining the extent to which instructional strategies map to learning objectives and whether the instructional technique connects to desired student-learning outcomes.
CONCLUSION While there is no shortage of research ethics educational resources, the effectiveness of RCR training is questionable. Rather than assume ethics education is ineffective, we should first consider whether we are effectively utilizing these resources when teaching RCR. The literature clearly demonstrates that the application of evidence-based principles in education is associated with improved student learning; however, it is unclear whether RCR teachers are applying these principles when designing instruction. This essay briefly introduced the research
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on human learning and described several practical tips for connecting evidence-based principles to RCR teaching. A few RCR-specific studies have revealed the importance of preconceptions and misconceptions on research ethics and students’ ability to learn (20), the importance of aligning learning outcomes with instructional strategies, and the value of formative assessment to guide instruction (14, 15, 26, 27). These studies shed light on how the science of learning can inform effective teaching about responsible and ethical conduct of research. Clearly, additional educational research is needed that applies the research on learning to teaching about research ethics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The work presented in this paper was supported in part by a National Science Foundation (NSF) Ethics Education in Science and Engineering (EESE) award (Award Number: 0932795; Award Period: 2009–2013). The content and opinions presented within this paper are those of the author and do not reflect official views of the NSF. The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.
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