Substance Use & Misuse, 49:1934–1944, 2014 C 2014 Informa Healthcare USA, Inc. Copyright ISSN: 1082-6084 print / 1532-2491 online DOI: 10.3109/10826084.2014.956365
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Substance Use and Antisocial Behavior in Adolescents: The Role of Family and Peer-Individual Risk and Protective Factors Diana Obando1 , Angela Trujillo1 and Carlos A. Trujillo2 1
Universidad de La Sabana, Psychology, Ch´ıa, Colombia; 2 School of Management, Universidad de los Andes, Bogot´a, Colombia increase of both behaviors simultaneously. There is also an absence of studies that identify risk and protective factors that are unique and common to adolescent substance use and other disruptive behaviors (Winters & Anderson, 2000). This research seeks to close that gap by exploring which family and individual-peer risk and protective factors are uniquely associated with consumption behavior, which are associated uniquely with antisocial behavior and with the co-occurrence of both behaviors. Thus, this work advances the understanding of how risk and protective factors influence the two types of behavior as well as their origins and development. It informs prevention and intervention programs that focus specifically on risk and prevention factors in order to reduce drug consumption and antisocial behavior.
Extant literature reports a frequent co-occurrence of substance consumption and antisocial behaviors. It is also postulated, therefore, that risk and protective factors are shared by the two behaviors. The purpose of this research is to test this notion by exploring whether family and peer-individual risk and protective factors are similarly associated with unique and co-occurring substance consumption and antisocial behaviors. A sample of 1,599 school students ranging between the ages of 11 and 19 completed a Spanish-language version of the Communities That Care Youth Survey (CTCYS). This instrument measures risk and protective factors and also captures adolescent drug consumption and antisocial behaviors. We find that risk and protective factors seem to operate in distinct ways for drug consumption and antisocial behaviors when they occur separately. Our findings indicate that the cooccurrence of both behaviors is related to risk factors, but it should not be inferred that the same factors will be present when only one behavior is observed.
Antecedents of Substance Consumption and Antisocial Behavior During Adolescence
The use of psychoactive substances is a growing phenomenon that affects the development of society and is linked to social maladjustments (Observatorio de Drogas de Colombia [Colombian Drug Monitor], 2008). In Colombia, substance use has increased among the school population, and there is a wide variety of substances used, including illegal drugs, alcohol and cigarettes (National Study of Substance Abuse in School Population, Colombia 2011, 2012). Recent research indicates that young people from Latin America have increased their participation in criminal activities, including theft and murder (Morales, 2008). This trend is also occurring in Colombia, where the number of cases of antisocial behavior committed by people under 18 years of age doubled during the last decade (Sanabria & Uribe, 2009); in one year, more than 29,000 criminal acts were committed by underage people, including murder and theft (Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar [ICBF], 2009).
Keywords Substance use, antisocial behavior, risk factors, protective factors, adolescence
INTRODUCTION
There is a wide body of literature that suggests that risk and protective factors are shared across substance use and antisocial behaviors (Acosta, Galindo, & Santos, 2010; Contreras, Molina, & Cano, 2012; L´opez & Rodr´ıguezArias, 2012; Wanner, Vitaro, Carbonneau, & Tremblay, 2009; Xue, Zimmerman, & Cunnigham, 2009; Young, Sweeting, & West, 2008). Building on this notion, intervention and prevention programs tend to assume that working on risk and protective factors that affect one behavior also exert an influence on the other. However, there is no research showing that any given risk or protective factor plays a significant role in the onset, maintenance or
Address correspondence to DIANA OBANDO, Universidad de La Sabana, Psychology, Campus Puente del Com´un Km. 7 autonorte Bogot´a, Ch´ıa, Cundinamarca, Ch´ıa, Colombia. E-mail: [email protected]
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SUBSTANCE USE AND ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENTS
Both behaviors—drug consumption and antisocial activity—bring negative consequences for the lives of youths, such as social problems associated with aggressive conduct, legal problems resulting from driving under the influence, arrest, medical conditions (such as liver problems and central nervous system diseases), and academic problems that are manifested in school failure (Brown, McGue, Maggs Shulenberg, Hingson, Swartzwelder, et al., 2009). The two behaviors are correlated. For instance, substance use reduces risk perception, which in turn increases the probability of participating in situations involving aggressive or criminal behaviors (Da Silva, Guevara, & Fortes, 2006). Adolescence increases the likelihood for the onset of drug consumption and consequently for antisocial behavior, due to the changes that adolescents experience at the psychological, physical, and social levels (Osorio, Ortega, & Pillon, 2004). Environmental and external situations significantly influence adolescents, which is why they are highly vulnerable to social pressures and tend to expose themselves to substantial risks, including those related to the use of psychoactive substances and antisocial behavior (Alfonso, Huedo-Medina, & Espada, 2009; Fraile, Riquelme, & Pimenta, 2004; Herrera, Wagner, Velasco, Borges, & Lazcano, 2004; Scoppetta, P´erez, & Lanziano, 2011; Sussman, Unger, & Dent, 2004). Extant knowledge establishes that the likelihood these behaviors will occur depends on the adolescent’s exposure to the risk and protective factors previously associated with them. Risk and Protective Factors
The Social Development Model proposed by Catalano & Hawkins (1996) suggests that psychoactive substance use and antisocial behavior may have many causes. It has been found that biological factors, psychological dispositions as well as social risk and protective factors that are present at the personal, family, school, community and peer levels influence the development of these types of behaviors. A risk factor is an event, condition, or experience that increases the probability of a problem occurring, becoming prolonged, or intensifying (Fraser & Terzian, 2005). Personal, social, and family characteristics may also predict the development of drug use behaviors and may increase an individual’s vulnerability to this type of behavior. Protective factors are events, conditions, or experiences that reduce, inhibit, or attenuate the likelihood of substance use or deviant behaviors to occur (Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992; Machado & Dos Santos, 2007; Oliva, Parra, & S´anchez-Queija, 2008). Extant literature suggests that individual risk factors include sensation-seeking, peer pressure (Calleja & Aguilar, 2008; Medina & Ferriani 2010), low risk perception (Estudio Nacional de Consumo de Sustancias Psicoactivas en Colombia 2009), drug use at an early age, a favorable attitude towards the use of substances, violent and delinquent behavior (Carballo, Garc´ıa, Secades, Fern´andez, Garcia, Erraste, et al., 2004; L´opez & Rodr´ıguez-Arias, 2012), and establishing relationships with other substance
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abusers (Wagner & Anthony, 2002). In contrast, being involved with religious practices (Felix, Villatoro, Medina, & Newcomb, 2001; Salazar, Varela, Tovar, & C´aceres, 2006) and upholding moral beliefs (Griffin, Scheier, Botvin, & D´ıaz, 2001; Moncada, 1997) are individual protective factors. Family risk and protective factors are associated with educational practices, communication strategies, family behaviors, and attitudes toward substance use (Fantin & Garc´ıa, 2011; Medina & Ferriani 2010; Moral, 2009; Mosqueda-D´ıaz & Ferriani, 2011; Mu˜noz-Rivas & GranaL´opez, 2001). Identified family risk factors include family conflict and approval of alcohol use (Cava, Murgui & Musitu, 2008). Conversely, parental supervision, attachment to the family (Moral, 2009), good family communication, establishment of clear and solid rules (March, Prieto, Danet, Azarola, Toyos, & Roman, 2010; Medina & Ferriani 2010; Mosqueda-D´ıaz & Ferriani, 2011), healthy family habits and values regarding abstaining from substance use are considered to be family protective factors (Secades, Fern´andez-Hermida, & Vallejo, 2005). Establishing relationships with peers who use drugs is a risk factor because of the influence that peers exert (Grana & Mu˜noz-Rivas, 2000)—not only regarding drug use behavior but also with respect to other problematic behaviors (Espelage, Holt, & Henkel, 2003; Sussman, Dent, & McCullar, 2000). Mu˜noz, Barbosa, Br´ın˜ ez, Caicedo, Mendez, & Oyuela, (2012) described how adolescents typically consume alcohol in the company of friends, which increases the frequency and the amount of consumption. Furthermore, Dishion, & Owen (2002) indicated that substance use appears to influence the selection of friends in late adolescence. In contrast, consistent participation in positive social activities, sports, and cultural undertakings are protective factors for drug use and antisocial behavior (Buckhalt, Halpin, Noel, & Meadows, 1992; Selnow & Crano, 1986). Overview of the Study
The principal goal of this work is to evaluate whether risk and protective factors influence drug consumption and anti-social behaviors differently when they occur together from when they occur separately. To this end, a relatively large sample of high school students was surveyed using a known measurement instrument that includes all relevant variables. Continuous variables were developed to capture the intensity of the occurrence of both target behaviors (i.e., drug use and anti-social activities); these are used as dependent variables in subsequent analyses. Parallel linear models are estimated for the following groups of respondents: (1) those reporting drug use only, (2) those reporting anti-social behavior only, and (3) those reporting both behaviors, which is the majority. Even though the literature reports a high correlation between the two types of behavior, there is a significant percentage of respondents reporting only one, which offers the opportunity to assess the particularities of those groups, especially in relation to the role of risk and protective factors.
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TABLE 1. Risk and protective factors at family and peer-individual levels Risk and protective factors Family Risk Factors Family History of Antisocial Behavior Poor Family Management Family Conflict Parental Attitudes Favorable Drug Use Parental Attitudes Favorable Antisocial Behavior Family Protective Factors Attachment Opportunities for Prosocial Involvement Peer-Individual Risk Factors Rebelliousness Gang Involvement Perceived Risk of Drug Use Early Initiation of Drug Use Early Initiation of Antisocial Behavior Favorable Attitudes Drug Use Favorable Attitudes Antisocial Behavior Sensation Seeking Rewards for Antisocial Involvement Friends’ Use of Drugs Interaction with Antisocial Peers Intentions to Use Peer-Individual Protective Factors Interaction with Prosocial Peers Belief in the Moral Order Prosocial Involvement Rewards for Prosocial Involvement Religiosity
α
Sample questions
.71 .72 .32 .65 .72
Has anyone in your family ever had a severe alcohol or drug problem? The rules in my family are clear People in my family often insult or yell at each other How wrong do your parents feel if you pick a fight with someone? How wrong do your parents feel it would be for you to smoke marijuana?
.77 .78
Do you feel very close to your mother? If I had a personal problem, I could ask my mom or dad for help
.50 .58 .88 .66 .52 .78 .76 .75 .81 .64 .63 .67
I ignore rules that get in my way Have you ever belonged to a gang? How much people risk harming themselves if they smoke. . . How old were you when you first smoked marijuana? How old were you when you first got arrested? How wrong do you think it is for someone your age to drink alcohol?
.50 .56 .58 .68 N/A
How many times have you done what feels good no matter what What are the chances you would be seen as cool if you drink alcohol? In the past year, how many of your best friends have used marijuana? In the past year, how many of your best friends have sold illegal drugs? How true these statement: when I am an adult I will drink alcohol In the past year how many of your best friends have liked school? I think sometimes it’s okay to cheat at school How many times, have you volunteered to do community service? What are the chances you would be seen as cool if you worked hard? How often do you attend religious services or activities?
METHODS Sample
The sample consisted of 1,599 public high school students between 11 and 19 years of age (X = 14.84, SD = 1.60); the sample was 50.2% female and 49.8% male and was randomly selected from six public schools in a rural area north of Bogot´a, in Colombia. Undergraduate psychology students who had been trained specifically for this study collected the data during class hours, in accordance with the policies and rules of each school. Only students whose parents had agreed (through informed consent) that they could participate were included. The survey required approximately one hour to be completed by the students. Instruments and Measures
The Spanish version of the Communities That Care Youth Survey (CTCYS) by Arthur, Hawkins, Pollard, Catalano, & Baglioni (2002) was used. This survey consists of 135 questions. It measures the levels of exposure to both risk and protection factors related to the consumption of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, inhalants, and other substances. It also measures consumption patterns and antisocial behaviors among adolescent students in grades 6 to 12. Regarding antisocial behavior, the CTCYS assessed the participation of students in several delinquent and disruptive behaviors or problematic situations, 10 of which will be considered for this study: school suspension, selling ille-
gal drugs, auto theft, being arrested, fighting at school, attacking others, stealing, damaging property, and gang participation. Risk and protective factors were measured at family and peer-individual levels. In total, 24 risk and protective factors were assessed. Table 1 contains the list of risk and protective factors, as well as the Cronbach’s alpha for each factor as measured by the CTCYS. Sample items are also indicated. Data Preparation and Verification
The software package PASW Statistics 18 was used for the data analysis. In order to analyze the co-occurrence and independent occurrence of drug consumption and antisocial behaviors, the sample was categorized into the following four groups: (1) participants who reported only antisocial behaviors (15% of the sample); (2) adolescents who reported only the use of drugs (cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana and/or inhalants: 11% of the sample); (3) adolescents who reported both drug consumption and antisocial behavior (56% of the sample); and 4) adolescents who did not report antisocial behavior or drug use (18% of the sample). For the first three groups, three continuous variables were created at the individual level: (1) intensity of the combined incidence of antisocial behavior with consumption behavior. This value was calculated by adding the number of disruptive behaviors reported by each respondent to the number of substances used, also by
SUBSTANCE USE AND ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENTS
respondent; (2) intensity of antisocial behavior. This was calculated by adding the scores of the ten antisocial behaviors assessed; and (3) substance use intensity, calculated by adding the number of substances used during the last month as reported by each respondent. To obtain risk and protective factors, participants’ responses were coded according to the authors’ instructions (Arthur, Hawkins, Pollard, Catalano, & Baglioni, 2002), which detail the correspondence between question number and risk or protective factor. Item scores were then averaged for each factor. Using the same statistical package, linear regressions were conducted to identify risk and protective factors at the family and peer-individual levels that are significantly associated to antisocial behavior, drug use, and the presence of both behaviors together. Gender and age were set as control variables. RESULTS Descriptive Results
The age of first use reported by the students revealed that the substance typically used earliest was alcohol (nonregularly), followed by cigarettes. Marijuana had the oldest age of initiation. The instrument did not assess the age of onset for inhalants. The highest prevalence use was for alcohol in general, followed by cigarettes, marijuana, and inhalants. For other drugs, such as cocaine, ecstasy, LSD, and basuco (cocaine base), life-use prevalence did not exceed 4% Given this low percentage, these drugs were not included in the analyses. The prevalence variables were dichotomized following CTC instructions, that is, 0 occasions for no use and 1 for one time or more. Table 2 contains descriptive statistics for drug consumption. Descriptive statistics for reported antisocial behaviors are presented in Table 3. It was found that fighting at school, leaving a store without paying and deliberately damaging the property of others were the most frequent behaviors reported by participants, followed by suspension from school, attacking others and stealing things worth more than US$5. The least common behaviors included selling drugs, auto theft, arrest and belonging to a gang. Descriptive results for the association between substance use (cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, and inhalants), gender and age, and antisocial behavior, are presented in TABLE 2. Age of onset and 30 day prevalence of substance use Age of onset
Cigarette Alcohol non-regular use alcohol regular use Marijuana Inhalants∗ ∗
M
SD
12.86 12.83 13.98 14.24
1.86 1.90 1.82 1.79
Age of onset for inhalants was not assessed.
30 days prevalence % 14 53 29 6 5
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TABLE 3. Percentage of adolescents who reported antisocial behavior Antisocial behavior
%
Fights at school Leave store without paying Damage to other’s properties Suspended from school Attack to harm Steal Arrested Belonging to a gang Sell illegal drugs Steal a vehicle
32 31 22 16 14 14 9 7 5 5
Table 4. To verify that the literature insights regarding the pervasive co-occurrence of drug use and anti-social behaviors was confirmed in our sample, we explored the relationship between the following variables, using Pearson’s correlation: substance use in the last 30 days, antisocial behavior, and age. Correlations were high as shown in Table 4. Results suggest that most of the antisocial behaviors studied were correlated with the use of more than one substance, auto theft being the only behavior correlated with just one. Moreover, only three of the antisocial behaviors correlated with excessive alcohol use. Age was not related to any antisocial behavior, but was related to cigarette and alcohol consumption, both for non-regular and excessive use. This summary only accounts for correlations above 15%; due to the sample size, low correlations may be significant. Age was not associated with any antisocial behavior, whereas gender was linked to fighting at school and leaving a store without paying; it is expected that males will engage in these type of behavior. Results also indicated that age was related to cigarette and alcohol consumption, both for non-regular and excessive use. Gender was not associated with any substance use. This summary only accounts for correlations above 15%; due to the sample size, low correlations may be significant. Risk Factors, Protective Factors and Antisocial and Consumption Behaviors
Three linear models were estimated using ordinary least squares. Model one included the sample that reported the incidence of the two behaviors and used the continuous index of co-occurrence of the two behaviors as the dependent variable. After controlling for age and gender, risk and protective factors scores were found to be the main regressors. Model two used the sample that reported the incidence of only antisocial behaviors, with the continuous index of antisocial behavior as the dependent variable and the same regressors and controls. Finally, model three used the sample that reported only drug consumption, with the continuous index of drug consumption as the dependent variable; the same controls were used. The estimated effects of family and peer-individual risk and
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TABLE 4. Correlation between substance use, gender and age and antisocial behavior
Suspended from school Sell illegal drugs Steal a vehicle Arrested Attack to harm Fights at school Steal Damage to other’s properties Leave store without paying Belonging to a gang Age Gender ∗∗∗
Cigarettes
Alcohol
Excessive alcohol
Marijuana
Inhalants
Age
Gender
.15∗∗∗ .15∗∗∗ .10 .16∗∗∗ .17∗∗∗ .21∗∗∗ .18∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .19∗∗∗ .14 .15∗∗∗ −.07
.17∗∗∗ .11 .09 .18∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .20∗∗∗ .17∗∗∗ .12 .22∗∗∗ .11 .21∗∗∗ −.01
.15 .03 .02 .11 .15 .18∗∗∗ .19∗∗∗ .10 .20∗∗∗ .05 .27∗∗∗ −.02
.13 .28∗∗∗ .13 .19∗∗∗ .15∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .13 .17∗∗∗ .14 .17∗∗∗ .13 −.09
.14 .24∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .14 .17∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .11 .19∗∗∗ .11 .15∗∗∗ .03 −.08
.12 .08 .05 .10 .09 .10 .11 .12 .08 .01 — —
−.10 −.05 −.04 −.12 −.08 −.15∗∗∗ −.07 −.06 −.18∗∗∗ −.10 — —
p< .001.
protective factors on the indexes of antisocial and consumption behaviors for the three models are presented in Table 5. As shown in Table 5, it was found that interaction with antisocial peers is the only truly shared risk factor
that is significantly associated with antisocial behavior, consumption behavior, and the co-occurrence of both behaviors. It was also found that gang involvement, early initiation of antisocial behavior, favorable attitudes toward antisocial behavior, sensation-seeking and rewards
TABLE 5. Effects of risk and protective factors on problematic behaviors Model 1: Antisocial & consumption behavior
Family Risk Family history of antisocial behavior Poor family management Family conflict Parents attitudes favorable drugs Parents attitudes favorable antisocial behavior Family Protection Attachement Oportunities for prosocial involvement Peer-Individual Risk Rebelliousness Gang involvement Perceived risk of drug use Early initiation of drug use Early initiation of antisocial behavior Favorable attitudes toward drug use Favorable attitudes antisocial behavior Sensation seeking Rewards for antisocial involvement Friends’ use of drugs Interaction with antisocial peers Intentions to use Peer-Individual Protection Interaction with prosocial peers Belief in the moral order Prosocial involvement Rewards for prosocial involement Social skills Age Gender ∗
p< .05; ∗∗ p
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Substance Use and Antisocial Behavior in Adolescents: The Role of Family and Peer-Individual Risk and Protective Factors Diana Obando1 , Angela Trujillo1 and Carlos A. Trujillo2 1
Universidad de La Sabana, Psychology, Ch´ıa, Colombia; 2 School of Management, Universidad de los Andes, Bogot´a, Colombia increase of both behaviors simultaneously. There is also an absence of studies that identify risk and protective factors that are unique and common to adolescent substance use and other disruptive behaviors (Winters & Anderson, 2000). This research seeks to close that gap by exploring which family and individual-peer risk and protective factors are uniquely associated with consumption behavior, which are associated uniquely with antisocial behavior and with the co-occurrence of both behaviors. Thus, this work advances the understanding of how risk and protective factors influence the two types of behavior as well as their origins and development. It informs prevention and intervention programs that focus specifically on risk and prevention factors in order to reduce drug consumption and antisocial behavior.
Extant literature reports a frequent co-occurrence of substance consumption and antisocial behaviors. It is also postulated, therefore, that risk and protective factors are shared by the two behaviors. The purpose of this research is to test this notion by exploring whether family and peer-individual risk and protective factors are similarly associated with unique and co-occurring substance consumption and antisocial behaviors. A sample of 1,599 school students ranging between the ages of 11 and 19 completed a Spanish-language version of the Communities That Care Youth Survey (CTCYS). This instrument measures risk and protective factors and also captures adolescent drug consumption and antisocial behaviors. We find that risk and protective factors seem to operate in distinct ways for drug consumption and antisocial behaviors when they occur separately. Our findings indicate that the cooccurrence of both behaviors is related to risk factors, but it should not be inferred that the same factors will be present when only one behavior is observed.
Antecedents of Substance Consumption and Antisocial Behavior During Adolescence
The use of psychoactive substances is a growing phenomenon that affects the development of society and is linked to social maladjustments (Observatorio de Drogas de Colombia [Colombian Drug Monitor], 2008). In Colombia, substance use has increased among the school population, and there is a wide variety of substances used, including illegal drugs, alcohol and cigarettes (National Study of Substance Abuse in School Population, Colombia 2011, 2012). Recent research indicates that young people from Latin America have increased their participation in criminal activities, including theft and murder (Morales, 2008). This trend is also occurring in Colombia, where the number of cases of antisocial behavior committed by people under 18 years of age doubled during the last decade (Sanabria & Uribe, 2009); in one year, more than 29,000 criminal acts were committed by underage people, including murder and theft (Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar [ICBF], 2009).
Keywords Substance use, antisocial behavior, risk factors, protective factors, adolescence
INTRODUCTION
There is a wide body of literature that suggests that risk and protective factors are shared across substance use and antisocial behaviors (Acosta, Galindo, & Santos, 2010; Contreras, Molina, & Cano, 2012; L´opez & Rodr´ıguezArias, 2012; Wanner, Vitaro, Carbonneau, & Tremblay, 2009; Xue, Zimmerman, & Cunnigham, 2009; Young, Sweeting, & West, 2008). Building on this notion, intervention and prevention programs tend to assume that working on risk and protective factors that affect one behavior also exert an influence on the other. However, there is no research showing that any given risk or protective factor plays a significant role in the onset, maintenance or
Address correspondence to DIANA OBANDO, Universidad de La Sabana, Psychology, Campus Puente del Com´un Km. 7 autonorte Bogot´a, Ch´ıa, Cundinamarca, Ch´ıa, Colombia. E-mail: [email protected]
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SUBSTANCE USE AND ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENTS
Both behaviors—drug consumption and antisocial activity—bring negative consequences for the lives of youths, such as social problems associated with aggressive conduct, legal problems resulting from driving under the influence, arrest, medical conditions (such as liver problems and central nervous system diseases), and academic problems that are manifested in school failure (Brown, McGue, Maggs Shulenberg, Hingson, Swartzwelder, et al., 2009). The two behaviors are correlated. For instance, substance use reduces risk perception, which in turn increases the probability of participating in situations involving aggressive or criminal behaviors (Da Silva, Guevara, & Fortes, 2006). Adolescence increases the likelihood for the onset of drug consumption and consequently for antisocial behavior, due to the changes that adolescents experience at the psychological, physical, and social levels (Osorio, Ortega, & Pillon, 2004). Environmental and external situations significantly influence adolescents, which is why they are highly vulnerable to social pressures and tend to expose themselves to substantial risks, including those related to the use of psychoactive substances and antisocial behavior (Alfonso, Huedo-Medina, & Espada, 2009; Fraile, Riquelme, & Pimenta, 2004; Herrera, Wagner, Velasco, Borges, & Lazcano, 2004; Scoppetta, P´erez, & Lanziano, 2011; Sussman, Unger, & Dent, 2004). Extant knowledge establishes that the likelihood these behaviors will occur depends on the adolescent’s exposure to the risk and protective factors previously associated with them. Risk and Protective Factors
The Social Development Model proposed by Catalano & Hawkins (1996) suggests that psychoactive substance use and antisocial behavior may have many causes. It has been found that biological factors, psychological dispositions as well as social risk and protective factors that are present at the personal, family, school, community and peer levels influence the development of these types of behaviors. A risk factor is an event, condition, or experience that increases the probability of a problem occurring, becoming prolonged, or intensifying (Fraser & Terzian, 2005). Personal, social, and family characteristics may also predict the development of drug use behaviors and may increase an individual’s vulnerability to this type of behavior. Protective factors are events, conditions, or experiences that reduce, inhibit, or attenuate the likelihood of substance use or deviant behaviors to occur (Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992; Machado & Dos Santos, 2007; Oliva, Parra, & S´anchez-Queija, 2008). Extant literature suggests that individual risk factors include sensation-seeking, peer pressure (Calleja & Aguilar, 2008; Medina & Ferriani 2010), low risk perception (Estudio Nacional de Consumo de Sustancias Psicoactivas en Colombia 2009), drug use at an early age, a favorable attitude towards the use of substances, violent and delinquent behavior (Carballo, Garc´ıa, Secades, Fern´andez, Garcia, Erraste, et al., 2004; L´opez & Rodr´ıguez-Arias, 2012), and establishing relationships with other substance
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abusers (Wagner & Anthony, 2002). In contrast, being involved with religious practices (Felix, Villatoro, Medina, & Newcomb, 2001; Salazar, Varela, Tovar, & C´aceres, 2006) and upholding moral beliefs (Griffin, Scheier, Botvin, & D´ıaz, 2001; Moncada, 1997) are individual protective factors. Family risk and protective factors are associated with educational practices, communication strategies, family behaviors, and attitudes toward substance use (Fantin & Garc´ıa, 2011; Medina & Ferriani 2010; Moral, 2009; Mosqueda-D´ıaz & Ferriani, 2011; Mu˜noz-Rivas & GranaL´opez, 2001). Identified family risk factors include family conflict and approval of alcohol use (Cava, Murgui & Musitu, 2008). Conversely, parental supervision, attachment to the family (Moral, 2009), good family communication, establishment of clear and solid rules (March, Prieto, Danet, Azarola, Toyos, & Roman, 2010; Medina & Ferriani 2010; Mosqueda-D´ıaz & Ferriani, 2011), healthy family habits and values regarding abstaining from substance use are considered to be family protective factors (Secades, Fern´andez-Hermida, & Vallejo, 2005). Establishing relationships with peers who use drugs is a risk factor because of the influence that peers exert (Grana & Mu˜noz-Rivas, 2000)—not only regarding drug use behavior but also with respect to other problematic behaviors (Espelage, Holt, & Henkel, 2003; Sussman, Dent, & McCullar, 2000). Mu˜noz, Barbosa, Br´ın˜ ez, Caicedo, Mendez, & Oyuela, (2012) described how adolescents typically consume alcohol in the company of friends, which increases the frequency and the amount of consumption. Furthermore, Dishion, & Owen (2002) indicated that substance use appears to influence the selection of friends in late adolescence. In contrast, consistent participation in positive social activities, sports, and cultural undertakings are protective factors for drug use and antisocial behavior (Buckhalt, Halpin, Noel, & Meadows, 1992; Selnow & Crano, 1986). Overview of the Study
The principal goal of this work is to evaluate whether risk and protective factors influence drug consumption and anti-social behaviors differently when they occur together from when they occur separately. To this end, a relatively large sample of high school students was surveyed using a known measurement instrument that includes all relevant variables. Continuous variables were developed to capture the intensity of the occurrence of both target behaviors (i.e., drug use and anti-social activities); these are used as dependent variables in subsequent analyses. Parallel linear models are estimated for the following groups of respondents: (1) those reporting drug use only, (2) those reporting anti-social behavior only, and (3) those reporting both behaviors, which is the majority. Even though the literature reports a high correlation between the two types of behavior, there is a significant percentage of respondents reporting only one, which offers the opportunity to assess the particularities of those groups, especially in relation to the role of risk and protective factors.
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D. OBANDO ET AL.
TABLE 1. Risk and protective factors at family and peer-individual levels Risk and protective factors Family Risk Factors Family History of Antisocial Behavior Poor Family Management Family Conflict Parental Attitudes Favorable Drug Use Parental Attitudes Favorable Antisocial Behavior Family Protective Factors Attachment Opportunities for Prosocial Involvement Peer-Individual Risk Factors Rebelliousness Gang Involvement Perceived Risk of Drug Use Early Initiation of Drug Use Early Initiation of Antisocial Behavior Favorable Attitudes Drug Use Favorable Attitudes Antisocial Behavior Sensation Seeking Rewards for Antisocial Involvement Friends’ Use of Drugs Interaction with Antisocial Peers Intentions to Use Peer-Individual Protective Factors Interaction with Prosocial Peers Belief in the Moral Order Prosocial Involvement Rewards for Prosocial Involvement Religiosity
α
Sample questions
.71 .72 .32 .65 .72
Has anyone in your family ever had a severe alcohol or drug problem? The rules in my family are clear People in my family often insult or yell at each other How wrong do your parents feel if you pick a fight with someone? How wrong do your parents feel it would be for you to smoke marijuana?
.77 .78
Do you feel very close to your mother? If I had a personal problem, I could ask my mom or dad for help
.50 .58 .88 .66 .52 .78 .76 .75 .81 .64 .63 .67
I ignore rules that get in my way Have you ever belonged to a gang? How much people risk harming themselves if they smoke. . . How old were you when you first smoked marijuana? How old were you when you first got arrested? How wrong do you think it is for someone your age to drink alcohol?
.50 .56 .58 .68 N/A
How many times have you done what feels good no matter what What are the chances you would be seen as cool if you drink alcohol? In the past year, how many of your best friends have used marijuana? In the past year, how many of your best friends have sold illegal drugs? How true these statement: when I am an adult I will drink alcohol In the past year how many of your best friends have liked school? I think sometimes it’s okay to cheat at school How many times, have you volunteered to do community service? What are the chances you would be seen as cool if you worked hard? How often do you attend religious services or activities?
METHODS Sample
The sample consisted of 1,599 public high school students between 11 and 19 years of age (X = 14.84, SD = 1.60); the sample was 50.2% female and 49.8% male and was randomly selected from six public schools in a rural area north of Bogot´a, in Colombia. Undergraduate psychology students who had been trained specifically for this study collected the data during class hours, in accordance with the policies and rules of each school. Only students whose parents had agreed (through informed consent) that they could participate were included. The survey required approximately one hour to be completed by the students. Instruments and Measures
The Spanish version of the Communities That Care Youth Survey (CTCYS) by Arthur, Hawkins, Pollard, Catalano, & Baglioni (2002) was used. This survey consists of 135 questions. It measures the levels of exposure to both risk and protection factors related to the consumption of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, inhalants, and other substances. It also measures consumption patterns and antisocial behaviors among adolescent students in grades 6 to 12. Regarding antisocial behavior, the CTCYS assessed the participation of students in several delinquent and disruptive behaviors or problematic situations, 10 of which will be considered for this study: school suspension, selling ille-
gal drugs, auto theft, being arrested, fighting at school, attacking others, stealing, damaging property, and gang participation. Risk and protective factors were measured at family and peer-individual levels. In total, 24 risk and protective factors were assessed. Table 1 contains the list of risk and protective factors, as well as the Cronbach’s alpha for each factor as measured by the CTCYS. Sample items are also indicated. Data Preparation and Verification
The software package PASW Statistics 18 was used for the data analysis. In order to analyze the co-occurrence and independent occurrence of drug consumption and antisocial behaviors, the sample was categorized into the following four groups: (1) participants who reported only antisocial behaviors (15% of the sample); (2) adolescents who reported only the use of drugs (cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana and/or inhalants: 11% of the sample); (3) adolescents who reported both drug consumption and antisocial behavior (56% of the sample); and 4) adolescents who did not report antisocial behavior or drug use (18% of the sample). For the first three groups, three continuous variables were created at the individual level: (1) intensity of the combined incidence of antisocial behavior with consumption behavior. This value was calculated by adding the number of disruptive behaviors reported by each respondent to the number of substances used, also by
SUBSTANCE USE AND ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENTS
respondent; (2) intensity of antisocial behavior. This was calculated by adding the scores of the ten antisocial behaviors assessed; and (3) substance use intensity, calculated by adding the number of substances used during the last month as reported by each respondent. To obtain risk and protective factors, participants’ responses were coded according to the authors’ instructions (Arthur, Hawkins, Pollard, Catalano, & Baglioni, 2002), which detail the correspondence between question number and risk or protective factor. Item scores were then averaged for each factor. Using the same statistical package, linear regressions were conducted to identify risk and protective factors at the family and peer-individual levels that are significantly associated to antisocial behavior, drug use, and the presence of both behaviors together. Gender and age were set as control variables. RESULTS Descriptive Results
The age of first use reported by the students revealed that the substance typically used earliest was alcohol (nonregularly), followed by cigarettes. Marijuana had the oldest age of initiation. The instrument did not assess the age of onset for inhalants. The highest prevalence use was for alcohol in general, followed by cigarettes, marijuana, and inhalants. For other drugs, such as cocaine, ecstasy, LSD, and basuco (cocaine base), life-use prevalence did not exceed 4% Given this low percentage, these drugs were not included in the analyses. The prevalence variables were dichotomized following CTC instructions, that is, 0 occasions for no use and 1 for one time or more. Table 2 contains descriptive statistics for drug consumption. Descriptive statistics for reported antisocial behaviors are presented in Table 3. It was found that fighting at school, leaving a store without paying and deliberately damaging the property of others were the most frequent behaviors reported by participants, followed by suspension from school, attacking others and stealing things worth more than US$5. The least common behaviors included selling drugs, auto theft, arrest and belonging to a gang. Descriptive results for the association between substance use (cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, and inhalants), gender and age, and antisocial behavior, are presented in TABLE 2. Age of onset and 30 day prevalence of substance use Age of onset
Cigarette Alcohol non-regular use alcohol regular use Marijuana Inhalants∗ ∗
M
SD
12.86 12.83 13.98 14.24
1.86 1.90 1.82 1.79
Age of onset for inhalants was not assessed.
30 days prevalence % 14 53 29 6 5
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TABLE 3. Percentage of adolescents who reported antisocial behavior Antisocial behavior
%
Fights at school Leave store without paying Damage to other’s properties Suspended from school Attack to harm Steal Arrested Belonging to a gang Sell illegal drugs Steal a vehicle
32 31 22 16 14 14 9 7 5 5
Table 4. To verify that the literature insights regarding the pervasive co-occurrence of drug use and anti-social behaviors was confirmed in our sample, we explored the relationship between the following variables, using Pearson’s correlation: substance use in the last 30 days, antisocial behavior, and age. Correlations were high as shown in Table 4. Results suggest that most of the antisocial behaviors studied were correlated with the use of more than one substance, auto theft being the only behavior correlated with just one. Moreover, only three of the antisocial behaviors correlated with excessive alcohol use. Age was not related to any antisocial behavior, but was related to cigarette and alcohol consumption, both for non-regular and excessive use. This summary only accounts for correlations above 15%; due to the sample size, low correlations may be significant. Age was not associated with any antisocial behavior, whereas gender was linked to fighting at school and leaving a store without paying; it is expected that males will engage in these type of behavior. Results also indicated that age was related to cigarette and alcohol consumption, both for non-regular and excessive use. Gender was not associated with any substance use. This summary only accounts for correlations above 15%; due to the sample size, low correlations may be significant. Risk Factors, Protective Factors and Antisocial and Consumption Behaviors
Three linear models were estimated using ordinary least squares. Model one included the sample that reported the incidence of the two behaviors and used the continuous index of co-occurrence of the two behaviors as the dependent variable. After controlling for age and gender, risk and protective factors scores were found to be the main regressors. Model two used the sample that reported the incidence of only antisocial behaviors, with the continuous index of antisocial behavior as the dependent variable and the same regressors and controls. Finally, model three used the sample that reported only drug consumption, with the continuous index of drug consumption as the dependent variable; the same controls were used. The estimated effects of family and peer-individual risk and
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D. OBANDO ET AL.
TABLE 4. Correlation between substance use, gender and age and antisocial behavior
Suspended from school Sell illegal drugs Steal a vehicle Arrested Attack to harm Fights at school Steal Damage to other’s properties Leave store without paying Belonging to a gang Age Gender ∗∗∗
Cigarettes
Alcohol
Excessive alcohol
Marijuana
Inhalants
Age
Gender
.15∗∗∗ .15∗∗∗ .10 .16∗∗∗ .17∗∗∗ .21∗∗∗ .18∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .19∗∗∗ .14 .15∗∗∗ −.07
.17∗∗∗ .11 .09 .18∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .20∗∗∗ .17∗∗∗ .12 .22∗∗∗ .11 .21∗∗∗ −.01
.15 .03 .02 .11 .15 .18∗∗∗ .19∗∗∗ .10 .20∗∗∗ .05 .27∗∗∗ −.02
.13 .28∗∗∗ .13 .19∗∗∗ .15∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .13 .17∗∗∗ .14 .17∗∗∗ .13 −.09
.14 .24∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .14 .17∗∗∗ .16∗∗∗ .11 .19∗∗∗ .11 .15∗∗∗ .03 −.08
.12 .08 .05 .10 .09 .10 .11 .12 .08 .01 — —
−.10 −.05 −.04 −.12 −.08 −.15∗∗∗ −.07 −.06 −.18∗∗∗ −.10 — —
p< .001.
protective factors on the indexes of antisocial and consumption behaviors for the three models are presented in Table 5. As shown in Table 5, it was found that interaction with antisocial peers is the only truly shared risk factor
that is significantly associated with antisocial behavior, consumption behavior, and the co-occurrence of both behaviors. It was also found that gang involvement, early initiation of antisocial behavior, favorable attitudes toward antisocial behavior, sensation-seeking and rewards
TABLE 5. Effects of risk and protective factors on problematic behaviors Model 1: Antisocial & consumption behavior
Family Risk Family history of antisocial behavior Poor family management Family conflict Parents attitudes favorable drugs Parents attitudes favorable antisocial behavior Family Protection Attachement Oportunities for prosocial involvement Peer-Individual Risk Rebelliousness Gang involvement Perceived risk of drug use Early initiation of drug use Early initiation of antisocial behavior Favorable attitudes toward drug use Favorable attitudes antisocial behavior Sensation seeking Rewards for antisocial involvement Friends’ use of drugs Interaction with antisocial peers Intentions to use Peer-Individual Protection Interaction with prosocial peers Belief in the moral order Prosocial involvement Rewards for prosocial involement Social skills Age Gender ∗
p< .05; ∗∗ p
