Postgraduate Medicine
ISSN: 0032-5481 (Print) 1941-9260 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ipgm20
Teenage alcohol use Thomas C. Harford PhD To cite this article: Thomas C. Harford PhD (1976) Teenage alcohol use, Postgraduate Medicine, 60:1, 73-76, DOI: 10.1080/00325481.1976.11714414 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00325481.1976.11714414
Published online: 07 Jul 2016.
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Citing articles: 1 View citing articles
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ipgm20 Download by: [University of Newcastle, Australia]
Date: 13 March 2017, At: 09:36
• Numerous surveys of adolescent populations, mostly high school students, have shown that a substantial proportion of teenagers consume alcoholic beverages at !east occasionally. Bacon and Jones 1 estimated that between 70% and 90% of teenagers have tried alcohol. These estimates are not surprising in view of the fact that the majority of adults consume alcohol. Adolescence is the period of transition from an abstinence culture of children to a drinking culture of adults. For the majority of teenagers, drinking is an integral aspect of adolescent development. 2 • 3 Studies in Canada and the United States4 - 6 have shown that alcohol use among youth has been increasing. For example, annual surveys conducted in Califomia from 1969 to 19735 indicated increases in the proportion ofboth boys and girls who began drinking during the preceeding year (52% of seventhgrade boys in 1969 compared with 72% in 1973 and 38% of seventh-grade girls in 1969 compared with 67% in 1973). In considering these statistics, it is important to remember that a true pic ture of tee nage alcohol use is clouded by a number of uncontrolled factors, such as changes in legal drinking age, potential distortions of self-reported information (eg, deniai, poor recall), and the limitation of surveys to in-school populations. Statistics based on school surveys may be conservative, since they do not take into account out-of-school youth, a group which probably has a higher proportion of drinkers than the school population. 7 ,s The nearly universal use of alcohol by teenagers is not as troubling as the high rate of alcohol abuse which accompanies it. In a 1974 national survey ,9 30% of high school students reported that they had been "pretty drunk" at least once during the previous month, and 7% said they had been drunk four or more times. Another indicator of alcohol abuse by young people is provided by the Department of Justice Uniform Crime Report for 1973, 10 which co vers the period of 1960 through 1973. Arrests of pers ons un der age 18 for alcohol-related offenses (ie, driving while intoxicated, liquor law violations, and drunkenness) increased 135% during this 13-year period. Arrests for driving while intoxicated increased in this age group more than 400%. The Research Triangle Institute of North Carolina, under contract to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alco-
Vol. 60 o No. 1 o July 1976 • POSTGRADUATE MEDICINE
tee nage alcohol use Thomas C. Harford, PhD National lnstitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Rockville, Maryland
Alcohol use among teenagers is increasing. Approximately 39% of the in-school adolescent population of the United States are at least moderate drinkers; 28% may be problem drinkers. Parental drinking models, peer structure, and other aspects of the social network supporting teenage alcohol use must be considered if attempts at intervention and treatment are to be successful.
73
demographie characteristics of adolescent drinkers (1974)* Characterlstlcs
Types of drlnkers (%) Abstainers
lnfrequent- Moderate Mode rateto-heavy to-light
He avy Total
23.2 31.1
29.3 36.4
16.4 14.6
16.0 11.5
15.1 6.3
100 99
37.8 27.8 24.7 22.6 17.2 20.5
38.0 35.4 31.5 28.3 31.7 22.0
12.7 15.4 16.2 17.3 17.5 16.5
7.3 11.7 16.0 17.4 19.0 20.8
4.3 9.7 11.5 14.5 14.6' 20.2
100 100 99 100 100 100
31.6 24.8 40.9 27.1
32.8 33.6 32.4 29.2
13.0 16.4 11.4 15.6
11.8 14.6 9.5 11.6
10.9 10.7 5.7 16.5
100 100 99 100
Northeast North Central South West
22.6 24.5 35.1 24.7
36.7 34.0 29.6 32.2
17.1 15.6 13.8 16.0
13.6 14.3 12.9 14.3
10.1 11.6 8.7 12.8
100 100 100 100
Metropolitan Nonmetropolitan
25.1 29.2
35.3 30.8
15.9 15.1
13.4 14.0
10.3 10.9
100 100
Sex Male Female
Age 13 and under 14 15 16 17 18 and over
Race Spanish American White Black American lndian
Residence (US)
*Data from Rachal et al, 11 p 147. Percentages are weighted for national adolescent (in-school) population.
holism, recently conducted a national survey11 to determine alcohol use among junior and senior high school students in the United States. This survey provides the most recent and comprehensive data on the extent and nature of adolescent alcohol use in this country. Five drinking classifications, weighted for the national adolescent (in-school) population, were derived from the reports of adolescents on the frequency and quantity of their own alcohol use. The percentage in each classification follows. Abstainers (those who do not drink or who do so less than once a year)-27%. Infrequent-to-light drinkers (those who drink once a month at most)-33%; within this category, 16% consume one drink per typical setting and 16% consume medium amounts, 2 to 4 drinks, per typical setting. Mode rate drinkers (those who drink at least once a week with small amounts per occasion or tho se who drink three or four times a mon th with medium amounts, 2 to 4 drinks, per setting)-15%.
74
Moderate-to-heavy drinkers (those who drink at least once a week with medium amounts, 2 to 4 drinks, per typical setting or those who drink three or four times a month with large amounts, 5 to 12 drinks, per occasion)-14%. Heavy drinkers (those who drink at least once a week with large amounts, 5 to 12 drinks, per occasion)-11 %. Regarding frequency of alcohol use, this survey indicated that 33.8% of US junior and senior high school students drink once a mon th at most, 17.3% drink three or four times per month, and 21.6% drink at least once a week. Approximately 39% can be classified as at least moderate drinkers. The study included demographie characteristics of the adolescents surveyed (table). Age and sex distributions are consistent with tho se of previous surveys; results indicate that more boys than girls drink and that amount and frequency of drinking increase with age. The amount of drinking among girls, however, is not low (approximately 18% are at least moderate-to-heavy drinkers) and reflects an increased proportion of girls who drank in 1974 compared with survey findings over the past decade. The age distributions are also consistent with reports that increased numbers of younger teenagers have become alcohol consumers. Approximately 24% of adolescents age 13 and under are classified as at least moderate drinkers. The racial-ethnie distributions indicate that blacks have the highest percentage of abstainers and the lowest percentage ofheavy drinkers. Whites are least likely to be abstainers and, with American Indians, have the highest percentage of moderate-to-heavy and heavy drinkers. Geographie distributions indicate that the South has the highest percentage of abstainers and the lowest percentage of drinkers in ali the drinking categories. Drinking patterns are nearly uniform among the other geographie regions. Among teenagers classified as at least moderate drinkers, residence in metropolitan versus nonmetropo1itan areas does not affect drinking patterns. Information on the demographie characteristics of adolescents who drink is useful both for identifying target populations and for estimating the se verity or scope of the prob-
POSTQRADUATE MEDICINE • July 1976 • Vol. 60 • No. 1
lem. However, effective intervention and treatment must also take into consideration the social network which contributes to the support and maintenance of alcohol use among teenagers. The survey provides sorne correlational information about the circumstances of adolescent drinking. The adolescent' s perception of parental drinking patterns and such social system contacts as religious affiliation are related to alcobol use. For example, the survey indicated that among adolescents who perceive their church or religion to disapprove of drinking, about 41% are abstainers. Only 17% of those who perceive their church as not against drinking are abstainers. Parental drinking models are an even stronger influence on adolescent drinking. Of the teenagers in the survey who perceive their parents as nondrinkers, 57% abstain compared with 15% of those who perceive their parents as drinking on a regular basis. Of the adolescents with nondrinking parents, 24% are at !east moderate drinkers compared with 51% of those whose parents drink regularly. Perhaps an equally strong influence is the peer structure. For example, 80% of the teenagers in the survey who report that ali their close friends drink (20% of the sampie) are at least moderate drinkers. Of the teenagers who report that none of their close friends drinks (23% of the sample), 7% are at !east moderate drinkers. Similar findings were reported with respect to perceptions of classmates and other peers who may not necessarily be close friends. The findings suggest a consistency between social contacts and drinking habits. Abstainers appear to be less exposed to drinking cultures (they are likely to have nondrinking parents and peers and to be exposed to religious and educational systems which disapprove of drinking). Students who report themselves to be at least moderate drinkers are more likely to have drinking parents and P.eers and to perceive the social system around them as not opposed to drinking. A more comprehensive examination of the factors associated with onset of drinkin.g in adolescents is included in a longitudinal study by Jessor and Jessor. 3 This study notes the relationship between sociopsychologic auributes (eg, persona! values, friend's approval of drinking) and onset of drinking.
Vol. 60 o No. 1 o July 1976 o POSTORADUATE MEDICINE
Thomas C. Harford
Dr. Harford is a social psychologist, division of research, National lnstitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Rockville, Maryland.
Almost no standardized criteria exist for distinguishing alcohol use from alcohol abuse, especially with respect to adolescents. Sorne people may feel that moderate use of alcohol by teenagers constitutes abuse; others view a heavy drinking pattern as abuse; still others feel that abuse is determined by broader considerations such as context and consequences. Jessor and associates 12 have defined problem drinking among youth with respeèt to frequency of drunkenness in the previous year and thenumber of aspects of the person 's life in which negative consequences associated with drinking have occurred. Jessor and Jessor13 have provided a theoretical framework in which the sociopsychologic correlates of problem drinking are interrelated and validated. ln the recent survey, 11 students defined as problem drinkers were those who reported being drunk four or more times in the past year and who indicated two or more life areas in which they experience negative consequences as a result of drinking. Application of these criteria indicated that approximately 28% of the sample population were problem drinkers. Although the overwhelming majority of young people will develop into responsible adults, the potential for a significant proportion of the current adolescent population to repeat the abusive drinking patterns of their eiders is a matter of concern. Summary
Approximately 39% of the in-school adolescent population of the United States can be classified as a least moderate drinkers, and as many as 28% may be problem drinkers. More adolescent boys than girls are drinkers, but the number of girls who drink is increasing, as
75
is the number of drinkers age 13 and under. Adolescent drinking patterns are influenced by parental drinking models, peer structure, and other sociopsychologic factors. Teenagers who drink are likely to have parents and peers who drink and to have contact with religious organizations and other social systems which they perceive as not disapproving of drinking. Abstainers, on the other hand, usually have nondrinking parents and peers and are more likely to be associated with social institutions which disapprove of drinking. A significant proportion of the current ado-
lescent population may enter adulthood with harmful drinking habits already ingrained. If intervention and treatment are to be effective, the social network which supports alcohol use among teenagers must be taken into account. • This article was written by Dr. Harford in his private capacity. No official support or endorsement by the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration (ADAMHA) is intended or should be inferred. Address reprint requests to Thomas C. Harford, PhD, National lnstitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Rockville, MD 20852.
References 1. Bacon MK, Jones MB: Teenage Drinking. New York, Crowell Collier & MacMillan, !ne, 1968 2. Maddox GL, McCall BC: Drinking Among Teenagers: A Sociological Interpretation of Alcohol Use by High School Students. Monograph No. 4. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers Center for Alcohol Studies, 1964 3. Jessor R, Jessor SL: Adolescent development and the onset of drinking. A longitudinal study. J Stud Alcohol, 36:27-51, 1975 4. Duval County School Board: Drug and Alcohol Opinionnaire and Usage Survey: Summary of Results, Spring 1971-Spring 1972. Jacksonville, Fla, Duval County School Board, 1972 5. Blackford L: Preliminary Summary-1973, San Mateo County Califomia, Surveillance of Student Drug Use. San Mateo, Calif, San Mateo County Department of Public Health and Welfare, 1973 6. Smart RG, Fejer D, White J: Drug Use Trends Among Metropolitan Toronto Students: A Study of Changes From 1968 to 1972. Substudy No. 512. Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto, 1972 7. Cockerham WC: Drin king patterns of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized Wyoming youth. J Stud Alcohol 36:993-995, 1975 8. MacKay JR, Phillips DL, Bryce FO: Drinking behavior among teenagers: A comparison of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized youth. J Health Soc Behav, 8:46-54, 1967
76
9. Communications Strategies on Alcohol and Highway Safety. 2. High School Youth Contract No. DOT-HS074-1-096. Prepared for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, Feb 1975. Available from the National Technicallnfonnation Service, Springfield, Va JO. US Department of Justice: Crime in the United States: Unifonn Crime Reports-1973. Table 26: Total Arrest Trends, 1960-1973. Washington, DC, US Government Prin ting Office, 197 4 JI. Rachat JV, Williams JR, Brehm ML, et al: A National Study of Adolescent Drinking Behavior, Attitudes and Correlates. Conducted by the Research Triangle lnstitute for the National lnstitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Contract No. HSM 42-73-80. Prepared for the US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Apr 1975. Available from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va 12. JessorR, Graves TD, Hanson RC, et al: Society, Personality and Deviant Behavior: A Study of a Tri-Ethnie Community. New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968 13. Jessor R, Jessor SL: Problem drin king in youth: Personality. social, and behavioral antecedents and correlates. ln Chafetz ME (Editor): Psychological and Social Factors in Drin king. Proceedings of the Second Annual Alcoholism Conference of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Washington, DC, US Government Prin ting Office, 197 3
POSTGRADUATE MEDICINE • July 1976 • Vol. 60 • No. 1
ISSN: 0032-5481 (Print) 1941-9260 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ipgm20
Teenage alcohol use Thomas C. Harford PhD To cite this article: Thomas C. Harford PhD (1976) Teenage alcohol use, Postgraduate Medicine, 60:1, 73-76, DOI: 10.1080/00325481.1976.11714414 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00325481.1976.11714414
Published online: 07 Jul 2016.
Submit your article to this journal
View related articles
Citing articles: 1 View citing articles
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ipgm20 Download by: [University of Newcastle, Australia]
Date: 13 March 2017, At: 09:36
• Numerous surveys of adolescent populations, mostly high school students, have shown that a substantial proportion of teenagers consume alcoholic beverages at !east occasionally. Bacon and Jones 1 estimated that between 70% and 90% of teenagers have tried alcohol. These estimates are not surprising in view of the fact that the majority of adults consume alcohol. Adolescence is the period of transition from an abstinence culture of children to a drinking culture of adults. For the majority of teenagers, drinking is an integral aspect of adolescent development. 2 • 3 Studies in Canada and the United States4 - 6 have shown that alcohol use among youth has been increasing. For example, annual surveys conducted in Califomia from 1969 to 19735 indicated increases in the proportion ofboth boys and girls who began drinking during the preceeding year (52% of seventhgrade boys in 1969 compared with 72% in 1973 and 38% of seventh-grade girls in 1969 compared with 67% in 1973). In considering these statistics, it is important to remember that a true pic ture of tee nage alcohol use is clouded by a number of uncontrolled factors, such as changes in legal drinking age, potential distortions of self-reported information (eg, deniai, poor recall), and the limitation of surveys to in-school populations. Statistics based on school surveys may be conservative, since they do not take into account out-of-school youth, a group which probably has a higher proportion of drinkers than the school population. 7 ,s The nearly universal use of alcohol by teenagers is not as troubling as the high rate of alcohol abuse which accompanies it. In a 1974 national survey ,9 30% of high school students reported that they had been "pretty drunk" at least once during the previous month, and 7% said they had been drunk four or more times. Another indicator of alcohol abuse by young people is provided by the Department of Justice Uniform Crime Report for 1973, 10 which co vers the period of 1960 through 1973. Arrests of pers ons un der age 18 for alcohol-related offenses (ie, driving while intoxicated, liquor law violations, and drunkenness) increased 135% during this 13-year period. Arrests for driving while intoxicated increased in this age group more than 400%. The Research Triangle Institute of North Carolina, under contract to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alco-
Vol. 60 o No. 1 o July 1976 • POSTGRADUATE MEDICINE
tee nage alcohol use Thomas C. Harford, PhD National lnstitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Rockville, Maryland
Alcohol use among teenagers is increasing. Approximately 39% of the in-school adolescent population of the United States are at least moderate drinkers; 28% may be problem drinkers. Parental drinking models, peer structure, and other aspects of the social network supporting teenage alcohol use must be considered if attempts at intervention and treatment are to be successful.
73
demographie characteristics of adolescent drinkers (1974)* Characterlstlcs
Types of drlnkers (%) Abstainers
lnfrequent- Moderate Mode rateto-heavy to-light
He avy Total
23.2 31.1
29.3 36.4
16.4 14.6
16.0 11.5
15.1 6.3
100 99
37.8 27.8 24.7 22.6 17.2 20.5
38.0 35.4 31.5 28.3 31.7 22.0
12.7 15.4 16.2 17.3 17.5 16.5
7.3 11.7 16.0 17.4 19.0 20.8
4.3 9.7 11.5 14.5 14.6' 20.2
100 100 99 100 100 100
31.6 24.8 40.9 27.1
32.8 33.6 32.4 29.2
13.0 16.4 11.4 15.6
11.8 14.6 9.5 11.6
10.9 10.7 5.7 16.5
100 100 99 100
Northeast North Central South West
22.6 24.5 35.1 24.7
36.7 34.0 29.6 32.2
17.1 15.6 13.8 16.0
13.6 14.3 12.9 14.3
10.1 11.6 8.7 12.8
100 100 100 100
Metropolitan Nonmetropolitan
25.1 29.2
35.3 30.8
15.9 15.1
13.4 14.0
10.3 10.9
100 100
Sex Male Female
Age 13 and under 14 15 16 17 18 and over
Race Spanish American White Black American lndian
Residence (US)
*Data from Rachal et al, 11 p 147. Percentages are weighted for national adolescent (in-school) population.
holism, recently conducted a national survey11 to determine alcohol use among junior and senior high school students in the United States. This survey provides the most recent and comprehensive data on the extent and nature of adolescent alcohol use in this country. Five drinking classifications, weighted for the national adolescent (in-school) population, were derived from the reports of adolescents on the frequency and quantity of their own alcohol use. The percentage in each classification follows. Abstainers (those who do not drink or who do so less than once a year)-27%. Infrequent-to-light drinkers (those who drink once a month at most)-33%; within this category, 16% consume one drink per typical setting and 16% consume medium amounts, 2 to 4 drinks, per typical setting. Mode rate drinkers (those who drink at least once a week with small amounts per occasion or tho se who drink three or four times a mon th with medium amounts, 2 to 4 drinks, per setting)-15%.
74
Moderate-to-heavy drinkers (those who drink at least once a week with medium amounts, 2 to 4 drinks, per typical setting or those who drink three or four times a month with large amounts, 5 to 12 drinks, per occasion)-14%. Heavy drinkers (those who drink at least once a week with large amounts, 5 to 12 drinks, per occasion)-11 %. Regarding frequency of alcohol use, this survey indicated that 33.8% of US junior and senior high school students drink once a mon th at most, 17.3% drink three or four times per month, and 21.6% drink at least once a week. Approximately 39% can be classified as at least moderate drinkers. The study included demographie characteristics of the adolescents surveyed (table). Age and sex distributions are consistent with tho se of previous surveys; results indicate that more boys than girls drink and that amount and frequency of drinking increase with age. The amount of drinking among girls, however, is not low (approximately 18% are at least moderate-to-heavy drinkers) and reflects an increased proportion of girls who drank in 1974 compared with survey findings over the past decade. The age distributions are also consistent with reports that increased numbers of younger teenagers have become alcohol consumers. Approximately 24% of adolescents age 13 and under are classified as at least moderate drinkers. The racial-ethnie distributions indicate that blacks have the highest percentage of abstainers and the lowest percentage ofheavy drinkers. Whites are least likely to be abstainers and, with American Indians, have the highest percentage of moderate-to-heavy and heavy drinkers. Geographie distributions indicate that the South has the highest percentage of abstainers and the lowest percentage of drinkers in ali the drinking categories. Drinking patterns are nearly uniform among the other geographie regions. Among teenagers classified as at least moderate drinkers, residence in metropolitan versus nonmetropo1itan areas does not affect drinking patterns. Information on the demographie characteristics of adolescents who drink is useful both for identifying target populations and for estimating the se verity or scope of the prob-
POSTQRADUATE MEDICINE • July 1976 • Vol. 60 • No. 1
lem. However, effective intervention and treatment must also take into consideration the social network which contributes to the support and maintenance of alcohol use among teenagers. The survey provides sorne correlational information about the circumstances of adolescent drinking. The adolescent' s perception of parental drinking patterns and such social system contacts as religious affiliation are related to alcobol use. For example, the survey indicated that among adolescents who perceive their church or religion to disapprove of drinking, about 41% are abstainers. Only 17% of those who perceive their church as not against drinking are abstainers. Parental drinking models are an even stronger influence on adolescent drinking. Of the teenagers in the survey who perceive their parents as nondrinkers, 57% abstain compared with 15% of those who perceive their parents as drinking on a regular basis. Of the adolescents with nondrinking parents, 24% are at !east moderate drinkers compared with 51% of those whose parents drink regularly. Perhaps an equally strong influence is the peer structure. For example, 80% of the teenagers in the survey who report that ali their close friends drink (20% of the sampie) are at least moderate drinkers. Of the teenagers who report that none of their close friends drinks (23% of the sample), 7% are at !east moderate drinkers. Similar findings were reported with respect to perceptions of classmates and other peers who may not necessarily be close friends. The findings suggest a consistency between social contacts and drinking habits. Abstainers appear to be less exposed to drinking cultures (they are likely to have nondrinking parents and peers and to be exposed to religious and educational systems which disapprove of drinking). Students who report themselves to be at least moderate drinkers are more likely to have drinking parents and P.eers and to perceive the social system around them as not opposed to drinking. A more comprehensive examination of the factors associated with onset of drinkin.g in adolescents is included in a longitudinal study by Jessor and Jessor. 3 This study notes the relationship between sociopsychologic auributes (eg, persona! values, friend's approval of drinking) and onset of drinking.
Vol. 60 o No. 1 o July 1976 o POSTORADUATE MEDICINE
Thomas C. Harford
Dr. Harford is a social psychologist, division of research, National lnstitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Rockville, Maryland.
Almost no standardized criteria exist for distinguishing alcohol use from alcohol abuse, especially with respect to adolescents. Sorne people may feel that moderate use of alcohol by teenagers constitutes abuse; others view a heavy drinking pattern as abuse; still others feel that abuse is determined by broader considerations such as context and consequences. Jessor and associates 12 have defined problem drinking among youth with respeèt to frequency of drunkenness in the previous year and thenumber of aspects of the person 's life in which negative consequences associated with drinking have occurred. Jessor and Jessor13 have provided a theoretical framework in which the sociopsychologic correlates of problem drinking are interrelated and validated. ln the recent survey, 11 students defined as problem drinkers were those who reported being drunk four or more times in the past year and who indicated two or more life areas in which they experience negative consequences as a result of drinking. Application of these criteria indicated that approximately 28% of the sample population were problem drinkers. Although the overwhelming majority of young people will develop into responsible adults, the potential for a significant proportion of the current adolescent population to repeat the abusive drinking patterns of their eiders is a matter of concern. Summary
Approximately 39% of the in-school adolescent population of the United States can be classified as a least moderate drinkers, and as many as 28% may be problem drinkers. More adolescent boys than girls are drinkers, but the number of girls who drink is increasing, as
75
is the number of drinkers age 13 and under. Adolescent drinking patterns are influenced by parental drinking models, peer structure, and other sociopsychologic factors. Teenagers who drink are likely to have parents and peers who drink and to have contact with religious organizations and other social systems which they perceive as not disapproving of drinking. Abstainers, on the other hand, usually have nondrinking parents and peers and are more likely to be associated with social institutions which disapprove of drinking. A significant proportion of the current ado-
lescent population may enter adulthood with harmful drinking habits already ingrained. If intervention and treatment are to be effective, the social network which supports alcohol use among teenagers must be taken into account. • This article was written by Dr. Harford in his private capacity. No official support or endorsement by the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration (ADAMHA) is intended or should be inferred. Address reprint requests to Thomas C. Harford, PhD, National lnstitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Rockville, MD 20852.
References 1. Bacon MK, Jones MB: Teenage Drinking. New York, Crowell Collier & MacMillan, !ne, 1968 2. Maddox GL, McCall BC: Drinking Among Teenagers: A Sociological Interpretation of Alcohol Use by High School Students. Monograph No. 4. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers Center for Alcohol Studies, 1964 3. Jessor R, Jessor SL: Adolescent development and the onset of drinking. A longitudinal study. J Stud Alcohol, 36:27-51, 1975 4. Duval County School Board: Drug and Alcohol Opinionnaire and Usage Survey: Summary of Results, Spring 1971-Spring 1972. Jacksonville, Fla, Duval County School Board, 1972 5. Blackford L: Preliminary Summary-1973, San Mateo County Califomia, Surveillance of Student Drug Use. San Mateo, Calif, San Mateo County Department of Public Health and Welfare, 1973 6. Smart RG, Fejer D, White J: Drug Use Trends Among Metropolitan Toronto Students: A Study of Changes From 1968 to 1972. Substudy No. 512. Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto, 1972 7. Cockerham WC: Drin king patterns of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized Wyoming youth. J Stud Alcohol 36:993-995, 1975 8. MacKay JR, Phillips DL, Bryce FO: Drinking behavior among teenagers: A comparison of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized youth. J Health Soc Behav, 8:46-54, 1967
76
9. Communications Strategies on Alcohol and Highway Safety. 2. High School Youth Contract No. DOT-HS074-1-096. Prepared for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, Feb 1975. Available from the National Technicallnfonnation Service, Springfield, Va JO. US Department of Justice: Crime in the United States: Unifonn Crime Reports-1973. Table 26: Total Arrest Trends, 1960-1973. Washington, DC, US Government Prin ting Office, 197 4 JI. Rachat JV, Williams JR, Brehm ML, et al: A National Study of Adolescent Drinking Behavior, Attitudes and Correlates. Conducted by the Research Triangle lnstitute for the National lnstitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Contract No. HSM 42-73-80. Prepared for the US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Apr 1975. Available from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va 12. JessorR, Graves TD, Hanson RC, et al: Society, Personality and Deviant Behavior: A Study of a Tri-Ethnie Community. New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968 13. Jessor R, Jessor SL: Problem drin king in youth: Personality. social, and behavioral antecedents and correlates. ln Chafetz ME (Editor): Psychological and Social Factors in Drin king. Proceedings of the Second Annual Alcoholism Conference of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Washington, DC, US Government Prin ting Office, 197 3
POSTGRADUATE MEDICINE • July 1976 • Vol. 60 • No. 1
