Review article
Tendon transfer for irreparable rotator cuff tears: indications and surgical rationale
Giovanni Merolla1,2 Claudio Chillemi3 Vincenzo Franceschini4 Simone Cerciello1 Giorgio Ippolito4 Paolo Paladini1 Giuseppe Porcellini1
with severe functional limitation. Purpose: aim of this study is to give an overview of the currently available evidence regarding tendon transfer procedures for irreparable rotator cuff tears.
1
Introduction
2
3
4
Unit of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery, D. Cervesi Hospital, Cattolica – AUSl della Romagna Ambito Territoriale di Rimini, Italy Biomechanics laboratory “Marco Simoncelli”, D. Cervesi Hospital, Cattolica - AUSl della Romagna Ambito Territoriale di Rimini, Cattolica, Italy Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Istituto Chirurgico Ortopedico Traumatologico (ICOT), Latina, Italy Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
Corresponding author: Giovanni Merolla Unit of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery and Biomechanics laboratory “Marco Simoncelli” AUSl della Romagna Ambito Territoriale di Rimini Via L. V. Beethoven 1 47822 Cattolica, Italy E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Summary Background: treatment of symptomatic irreparable rotator cuff tears is extremely challenging because, at present, there are no ideal solutions to this problem. Many patients respond favorably to nonsurgical treatment. However, when conservative measures fail to improve the patient’s pain and disability, surgery should be considered. Methods: different surgical techniques are available and the choice of the most appropriate procedure depends on the presenting symptoms, age of the patient, functional demand, medical comorbidities, joint stability and presence of arthritic changes. The transposition of the surrounding muscles to replace the rotator cuff function represents a viable option in the treatment of younger patients without glenohumeral osteoarthritis and Muscles, Ligaments and Tendons Journal 2014; 4 (4): 425-432
KEY WORDS: shoulder, rotator cuff, irreparable tears, tendon transfer.
Rotator cuff tears (RCT) represent one of the most common cause of pain and disability of the shoulder. Epidemiological studies have shown that RCT occur more frequently after a certain age, with a prevalence ranging from 30 to 50% in patients older than 50 years1, and that, in most of cases, they are progressive 2 . Although the pathogenesis of RCT remains unclear, two main theories have been developed: the extrinsic theory and the intrinsic one3. In 1972 Neer4 developed the concept that RCT resulted from the extrinsic mechanical compression caused by a hooked acromion (subacromial impingement). However, recent evidence strongly suggests that most of RCT are caused by primary intrinsic degeneration of the rotator cuff5 which result from the combination of the natural process of aging, poor vascularity, altered biology and inferior mechanical properties6-8. In addition, a genetic component for the development of RCT has also been identified and theorized to be related to polymorphism of collagen genes9. Basing on these findings, some studies have suggested that RCT do not heal spontaneously and that they tend to grow larger over time 1,10,11 . The treatment of choice in symptomatic “cases” is the direct reattachment of the torn tendon to the foot-print through either open or arthroscopic surgery. However, some tears can progress to the point of becoming irreparable. Several classification systems have been developed to describe RCT based on different parameters12-18 (Tab. 1). The term irreparable is often incorrectly used and ably interchanged with with the term massive but not all massive tears10 (Fig. 1). It is possible to define irreparable tears as those that, because of their size and retraction, cannot be repaired primarily to their insertion on the tuberosities despite conventional techniques of mobilization and soft-tissue releases 19,20. Moreover, irreparable RCT typically present with atrophy and fatty degeneration of the respective muscles that lead to impaired muscle quality and thus to defective contrac-
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G. Merolla et al.
Table 1. System of classification for rotator cuff tears. Authors
Criteria
Method of assessment
DeOrio & Cofield28 Snyder31 Patte32 Ellmann & Gartsman30 Lafosse36 Goutallier33 Fuchs34
Size Size, retraction Location, size, retraction, muscle quality, state of the LHB Morphology Isolated subscapularis tear Muscle fatty degeneration Muscle fatty degeneration
Open surgery Arthroscopy MRI Arthroscopy Arthroscopy CT scan MRI
Figure 1. Magnetic Resonance (MR) of the right shoulder of a 68-year-old woman. A) Paracoronal view shows a massive supraspinatus tear. The tendon is retracted more than 5 cm (black arrow) and the volume of muscle belly in the supraspinatus fossa is reduced (white head arrows). B) Parasagittal view demonstrates fatty infiltration grade II of the supraspinatus muscle (red arrow) and grade I of the infraspinatus (white arrow).
tion even if direct repairs are structurally successful2,21. Obviously in presence of an irreparable RCT, also the shoulder biomechanics is altered. In the normal shoulder, the deltoid and rotator cuff muscles work synergistically to maintain a balanced force couple around the joint in both the coronal and the transverse plane, with coactivation of agonist and antagonist muscles, as well as coordinated activation of the agonist and inhibition of the antagonist muscle22,23. In particular, the deltoid and rotator cuff inferior to the humeral head equator maintain a balanced coronal force couple, while the subscapularis and infraspinatus/teres minor complex balance each other in the transverse plane23,24. In this way, the rotator cuff acts as a dynamic stabilizer, resisting upward motion of the humeral head during contraction of the deltoid muscle 20,23,25. When there is an irreparable RCT, the stabilizing force couple is lost, allowing the humeral head to displace superiorly for the contraction of deltoid. This is associated with a loss of elevation and, in some cases, with superior shoulder instability20. For this reason, acromiohumeral distance (evaluated on X-ray) represents another parameter that may be used to assess if a RCT is reparable10, with some studies suggesting that an acromiohumeral distance of
Tendon transfer for irreparable rotator cuff tears: indications and surgical rationale
Giovanni Merolla1,2 Claudio Chillemi3 Vincenzo Franceschini4 Simone Cerciello1 Giorgio Ippolito4 Paolo Paladini1 Giuseppe Porcellini1
with severe functional limitation. Purpose: aim of this study is to give an overview of the currently available evidence regarding tendon transfer procedures for irreparable rotator cuff tears.
1
Introduction
2
3
4
Unit of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery, D. Cervesi Hospital, Cattolica – AUSl della Romagna Ambito Territoriale di Rimini, Italy Biomechanics laboratory “Marco Simoncelli”, D. Cervesi Hospital, Cattolica - AUSl della Romagna Ambito Territoriale di Rimini, Cattolica, Italy Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Istituto Chirurgico Ortopedico Traumatologico (ICOT), Latina, Italy Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
Corresponding author: Giovanni Merolla Unit of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery and Biomechanics laboratory “Marco Simoncelli” AUSl della Romagna Ambito Territoriale di Rimini Via L. V. Beethoven 1 47822 Cattolica, Italy E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Summary Background: treatment of symptomatic irreparable rotator cuff tears is extremely challenging because, at present, there are no ideal solutions to this problem. Many patients respond favorably to nonsurgical treatment. However, when conservative measures fail to improve the patient’s pain and disability, surgery should be considered. Methods: different surgical techniques are available and the choice of the most appropriate procedure depends on the presenting symptoms, age of the patient, functional demand, medical comorbidities, joint stability and presence of arthritic changes. The transposition of the surrounding muscles to replace the rotator cuff function represents a viable option in the treatment of younger patients without glenohumeral osteoarthritis and Muscles, Ligaments and Tendons Journal 2014; 4 (4): 425-432
KEY WORDS: shoulder, rotator cuff, irreparable tears, tendon transfer.
Rotator cuff tears (RCT) represent one of the most common cause of pain and disability of the shoulder. Epidemiological studies have shown that RCT occur more frequently after a certain age, with a prevalence ranging from 30 to 50% in patients older than 50 years1, and that, in most of cases, they are progressive 2 . Although the pathogenesis of RCT remains unclear, two main theories have been developed: the extrinsic theory and the intrinsic one3. In 1972 Neer4 developed the concept that RCT resulted from the extrinsic mechanical compression caused by a hooked acromion (subacromial impingement). However, recent evidence strongly suggests that most of RCT are caused by primary intrinsic degeneration of the rotator cuff5 which result from the combination of the natural process of aging, poor vascularity, altered biology and inferior mechanical properties6-8. In addition, a genetic component for the development of RCT has also been identified and theorized to be related to polymorphism of collagen genes9. Basing on these findings, some studies have suggested that RCT do not heal spontaneously and that they tend to grow larger over time 1,10,11 . The treatment of choice in symptomatic “cases” is the direct reattachment of the torn tendon to the foot-print through either open or arthroscopic surgery. However, some tears can progress to the point of becoming irreparable. Several classification systems have been developed to describe RCT based on different parameters12-18 (Tab. 1). The term irreparable is often incorrectly used and ably interchanged with with the term massive but not all massive tears10 (Fig. 1). It is possible to define irreparable tears as those that, because of their size and retraction, cannot be repaired primarily to their insertion on the tuberosities despite conventional techniques of mobilization and soft-tissue releases 19,20. Moreover, irreparable RCT typically present with atrophy and fatty degeneration of the respective muscles that lead to impaired muscle quality and thus to defective contrac-
425
G. Merolla et al.
Table 1. System of classification for rotator cuff tears. Authors
Criteria
Method of assessment
DeOrio & Cofield28 Snyder31 Patte32 Ellmann & Gartsman30 Lafosse36 Goutallier33 Fuchs34
Size Size, retraction Location, size, retraction, muscle quality, state of the LHB Morphology Isolated subscapularis tear Muscle fatty degeneration Muscle fatty degeneration
Open surgery Arthroscopy MRI Arthroscopy Arthroscopy CT scan MRI
Figure 1. Magnetic Resonance (MR) of the right shoulder of a 68-year-old woman. A) Paracoronal view shows a massive supraspinatus tear. The tendon is retracted more than 5 cm (black arrow) and the volume of muscle belly in the supraspinatus fossa is reduced (white head arrows). B) Parasagittal view demonstrates fatty infiltration grade II of the supraspinatus muscle (red arrow) and grade I of the infraspinatus (white arrow).
tion even if direct repairs are structurally successful2,21. Obviously in presence of an irreparable RCT, also the shoulder biomechanics is altered. In the normal shoulder, the deltoid and rotator cuff muscles work synergistically to maintain a balanced force couple around the joint in both the coronal and the transverse plane, with coactivation of agonist and antagonist muscles, as well as coordinated activation of the agonist and inhibition of the antagonist muscle22,23. In particular, the deltoid and rotator cuff inferior to the humeral head equator maintain a balanced coronal force couple, while the subscapularis and infraspinatus/teres minor complex balance each other in the transverse plane23,24. In this way, the rotator cuff acts as a dynamic stabilizer, resisting upward motion of the humeral head during contraction of the deltoid muscle 20,23,25. When there is an irreparable RCT, the stabilizing force couple is lost, allowing the humeral head to displace superiorly for the contraction of deltoid. This is associated with a loss of elevation and, in some cases, with superior shoulder instability20. For this reason, acromiohumeral distance (evaluated on X-ray) represents another parameter that may be used to assess if a RCT is reparable10, with some studies suggesting that an acromiohumeral distance of
