The

Psychological Clinic

Copyright, 1925, by Lightner Witnfer, Editor

Vol. XV,

December, 1924

/

No. 9

??

TESTS AND NORMS AT Ae SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL By Charlotte Easby-Grave, Ph.D

Clinic Teacher,

The

Psychological Clinic, University of Pennsylvania

old child is an exist, but the six year to be are supposed abstraction, a hypothetical entity. Children time they are at or about the ready to enter the first grade of school six the first grade over six years old. However, were all children in not be a homogeneous a&d under seven they still would

Six

year old children

years, out in individual who starts for each child is a particular How then, life with an endowment of differentiated personality. ? it possible to define a six year level of competency comdefinition of human If we start with Dr. Witmer's those

^oup,

petency

as

"a

who

in

a

are

measure

of

differentiates superiority which define

who group from those

are

not,"

we

may

standard determine, by certain

our

tests,

Problem as an attempt to event which opens which children really enter into the competitive that not to be supposed with enrollment in the first grade. It is first the into entrance ^e six year level of competency begins with Chilthe second grade. grade or that it ends with promotion into of Philadelphia schools dren who are in the first grade of a number old level, at the six year were selected for investigation as children of children, homogeneous because in this way we obtained a group their earliest official With respect to the conditions which determine The with other children. admission to school-room competition most to is the modal age acceptable six

chronological

age of

years

enrollment.

grade at the fifthe index of normal ability Learning1 to According acceptable to a unit teen year level is "the minimum of proficiency individual is expected to be Member of the social group." Every the Vocational Guidance at 1 Tests and norms for E. Rebecca XIV, Vol. Learning, Psychological Clinic, Fifteen Year Old Performance Level.

school administrators for first

1 QOo

1922,

__

p. 193.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

262

able at least to

earn

his

living,

marry, raise a

family,

and keep

out of an institution of social elimination. On the other hand, at the six year level the criterion of competency is the child's congenital and potential ability to respond to educational and other stimuli with some change of behavior

directed toward

a

definable level of social

at this age level is

presumably

proficiency.

able to take

The child

of himself

physically. He is able to conform sufficiently to sit quiet for a stated period of time. He is able to carry out a number of directions given consecutively. He is for the first time required to pattern his behavior by a rule other than that of his family group. The first grade child is therefore in the transition stage between a purely egocentric and an alterocentric world. care

PEOBLEM

The

problem

of this

investigation, then,

was to

explore

the

competency of first grade children. The approach to this problem was, of necessity, twofold?both quantitative and qualitative. The

procuring

of

norms

by

a

statistical treatment of the

quantitative

results has developed as the only feasible means of presenting this material for practical use, either by psychologists or educators. A judgment of mental capacity eludes satisfactory expression in words. The language available seems to be worn threadbare. Each word connotes such a variety of meanings that the expression of our

judgments

may

easily

be

to whom the terms carry an

misinterpreted or garbled by entirely different significance.

others It has

been necessary, therefore, to have recourse to a statistical presentation, since numbers or arithmetical expressions have a definite and limited evident.

meaning.

The deficiencies of such

The tabular standards

a

inelastic.

method

are

plainly

take no They account of external physical conditions, of possible poor physical tone on the part of the subject, of psycho-pathic tendencies, of the personality of the examiner, or of a hundred other individual differences. There is also the old quarrel as to whether mental capacity can even be explored by the limited means of mental tests, and granting this, whether the results, statistically presented, can be of any value. The second aspect of our study has been influenced by a realization of the importance of the qualitative differences in individuals, and a demand on the part of the school authorities for some estimate of these, no matter how poorly expressed. are

can

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL

263

The battery of tests chosen was selected not so much with the Purpose of standardization in mind, but because the tests were be-

well rounded clinical picture of each These individuals were children taken from the regular first grades of the Philadelphia Public Schools. The school authorities were naturally interested in the results from the point ?f view of individual educational treatment. The score made by

lieved

to form

a

part of

a

individual.

a

child

express Cental

only as we might it to them in qualitative terms concerning the individual's endowment. They desired a diagnosis and a prognosis of on

any

given

test

was

important

to them

This younger group of children has not as yet conformed so thoroughly to the social pattern as have older groups. The possibilities of a qualitative study of this age level are many. It would furnish, most of all, an excellent basis for preventive in measures in the mental field like similar modern developments

future

progress.

the medical field.

This

preliminary study, therefore, though

pre-

imsented in statistical form, has included for the examiners an that it portant qualitative aspect, and has developed the certainty is along this line that further investigation should proceed. THE GROUP

in the The group tested consisted of five hundred children 256 selection, without 1 A and B grades. Of these five hundred, came whole the group of were males, 244 were females. Thirty from a private school, the other 470 are Philadelphia Public School

children.

other are in a schools?one an annex of the are old and schools Neighborhood of small stores and markets. The from poor come in rather bad condition. Their groups of children families are, as a homes, mixed groups of colored and white. The confashioned ^hole, of low social grade. Row houses of old conditions. struction provide poor ventilation and poor sanitary The clothing of the children was shabby and unclean ill health a common occurrence. The general aspect of most of the group convinced one of an environment of slovenliness and ignorance. Two of the

public

A third school is in a prosperous, middle-class neighborhood. The building is new and well constructed?light, well ventilated and sanitary. The majority of the children looked clean and well fed, and their physical condition was better than that of the former Comgroup. Their fathers were the employees of the Traction

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

264

pany, skilled mechanics, storekeepers, etc. The houses were row houses?as a rule, tidy and well ordered, with good plumbing, and, in many cases, electricity. The fourth and fifth schools are old buildings with only fair

in

Italian quarter. They equipment, and almost no playThe of the neighborhood is redolent of atmosphere ground space. old the women with the country, bright colored shawls and banare

an

dannas, snatches of Italian conversation, special Italian restaurants,

life, change and unrest. The hearing of many complaints: truancy, illness or tragedy at home, delinquency or mischievous and malicious conduct, but always something happening. The children were dirty, but rarely ragged. They were slow and so often lacking in alertness that one suspected an unwise diet and irregular regimen at home. The private school is modernly equipped, has more than adequate play space, and is so endowed that its staff of teachers is groceries,

banks and

school office

excellent.

was

clubs,

the

The children

and business

men.

spirit

a

scene

of

for the

come

from the families of

Their environment and home

professional

training,

as

well

their school advantages, are of the best. These schools were not chosen with any other purpose than that of their accessibility as to distance, and a willingness on the

as

part of the school authorities over

to receive

us.

The

testing extended

the academic years of 1922-23, 1923-24. The conditions for examining were ideal

school.

Here

we

had the

use

of

a

only in large, airy faculty

the

private room, quite

and bustle of the school. In two instances the school office?a spot of manifold distractions. In another school we worked in a supply room, a narrow, dark place, subject to extremes of temperature, but fortunately

separated from the noise the testing was done in

rather

quiet

and secluded.

In two other

schools,

carried

testing was were inclined

the

on in the teachers' lunch room. The teachers conversation concerning the children and the tests?both of which proved highly distracting.

to

SELECTION OF THE TESTS

This investigation was a "test experiment," not a "research experiment," as Whipple2 distinguishes it. "The test has a diagnostic rather than a theoretical aim; its purpose is not to discover -

Whipple, Guy Montrose. Inc., 1914, p. 1.

wick and York,

Manual of Mental and Physical Tests,

War*

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL new

facts, principles

laws for the science of

or

265

psychology?though

result may indirectly be attained?but to analyze, measure and rank the status or the efficiency of traits and capacities in the individual under examination." In order to obtain a well rounded picture of the '1 status" of each child, a number of tests were se-

such

a

battery for this study. The three performance tests, explorative of psycho-motor competency, included the Witmer

lected

as a

Cylinders and Young's Slot Maze A. The ^inet-Simon series provided a means of discovering social, environThe memory span test, mental and informational background. visual, auditory, reverse and learning digit spans, were an attempt for an intellectual index. The school proficiency test involved the child's evidence of educability and pedagogical conformity.

I'ormboard,

the Witmer

METHOD OF PROCEDURE

child of six years differs radically from that used with a fifteen year old child. The each subgreatest single difference lies in the time necessary for of one time ject. The testing of one six year old requires the full work slowly examiner. In addition to this, children at this age and There must be no sense of hurry or

The method of procedure in examining

answer

a

questions slowly.

He may grow excited to do any of the tests. refuse and he may grow shy as far possible from the disroom is removed as

the child's whole performance is altered. and

careless,

or

If the examining

sounds of the school classroom, the testing always proceeds more smoothly. The best of six year old children are highly distractable, and even the fact that two or three examiners are testing other children in the same room frequently interferes with the child's persistence of attention and efficiency. Usually three exat aminers work thus three children may be examined

tracting

together;

time. The five minutes to give the child's one

average

period

of each

examination occupies forty-

The school office furnishes cards which and months, the name and address, his age in years names of his parents, his own nativity and that of his father, and the record of each year spent in the school grades. On the reverse side of the card there is a record of the routine medical examination given to each school child. Each examiner is provided with the a form card on which to record information and time taken for make to which on tests, as well as with an analytic diagnosis sheet3 judgments of abilities and defects, and to note any traits of peran

hour.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

266

observed. With these younger children, it is particularly essential that the examiner have a sympathetic personality and know how to make friends with children quickly. It is fatal to laugh at any of the answers given to questions, as well as to attempt

sonality

to check any friendly confidences which the child offers, even if they take extra time. We often found that a few minutes of con-

versation gave us the clue to a child's difficulties in school. One examiner gave the Binet test and a test of school proficiency; another the Witmer Formboard and Young's Slot Maze A, and a third gave the Witmer Cylinders, the auditory, visual and and the learning span. At least one analytic diagnosis chart was filled out for every case, and, owing to the apportioning of the tests, almost every child was seen by three reverse memory spans

examiners.

question asked of every case is "What is your name?" only to identify the child with the proper card, but a test. The giving of a last name is placed by the sense,

The first This

is,

serves not

in

a

Stanford revision of the Binet test at the three year level, so that we may expect all six year olds to be able to answer the question easily. "Where do you live?"?on the other hand, is a more difficult question to answer, and the majority of six year olds failed to answer it correctly. The cards provided by the school are used as a means "What

to prove the response.

brings

the answer, "Miss

grade

's room."

are you

This

in?"?frequently is given full

answer

as to race and nationality are checked up from The child is asked his age, but this is confirmed as to exact age in years and months by the school card. Few six year olds know their birthday month. The next question, "What does your father do?what is his work?" elicits some of the most inter-

credit.

Questions

the card.

esting

as

well

of the most amusing responses. This query way to confidences about the child's life at home.

as some

usually leads the

The necessary information as to the age at which the child entered school and the number of years he has been in school is secured from the card. Whenever scales and measuring apparatus were available in the school, the child was carefully weighed and measured. In any case, even if exact measurement was a

impossible,

of physical type was made. This judgment was based three point scale: 1?represents the anatomical and physical

judgment on a 3

See

Humpstone,

H.

Clinic, 1919, 12, 171-173,

for

J., The Analytical Diagnosis, Psychological explanation.

TEE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL

267

small boned and lightly muscled; 2?reprein which height and weight are about equally type was 3?is the heavy type, big boned and rugged. Health balanced; also estimated on a five point scale: 3?average good health, 4?above average, and 2?below; 1 and 5 represent the extremes: of vigor and robustness. With 1-?real 5?a

type

which is

thin, wiry,

sents the average

illness,

striking degree

all this information recorded, we now have a fair superficial background for each child, and can begin our examination with some

definiteness. It is preferable to start the examination with the giving of the This test is standardized at the four year Formboard. that all six year olds will and it fevel, may therefore be supposed solve it without much difficulty. Thus it serves to give the child and make him feel that the examination is nothing

Witnier

confidence,

*aore than a series of games, at the first of which, he has already In addition to this, it gives the examiner demonstrated his

ability.

excellent opportunity to estimate discriminability, co-ordination and efficiency in the subject. The board is presented to the child with the tray on the far side. The examiner says, Do you see all these blocks ? I'm going to take them out and put them up here, and I want to see how fast you can put them back. All right, now Put them back just as fast as you can." During these directions the examiner has taken the blocks out at random and placed them in the tray. There is a five minute time limit, and if the child has not succeeded in replacing the blocks within this time, his performance is considered a failure. If he replaces the blocks incorIs rectly and stops before the five minutes are up, he is asked, that right?" If he does not then replace the blocks correctly, failure is registered. In either case, he is next taught the solution with the minimum of instruction and giveh a second trial with the Let s The directions are then, same time limit of five minutes. hands. both use and see if yon can do it much faster this time The blocks are removed at random for this trial also. After comother pleting the Formboard, the child is usually anxious to try the an

games"

or

"puzzles." Cylinders, standardized

at the six year level, are trials. The examiner for both also given with a five minute limit gives the following directions: "Do you see how nice and smooth all these blocks are on top, and how tight they fit? I'm going to to see take them all out and them in the middle, and I want

The Witmer

put

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

268

quickly yon can put them back just where they belong." While giving these directions the examiner runs his hand over the top of the Cylinders to indicate their smoothness, and attempts to rattle the block in its hole, an impossibility if the blocks are correctly placed. If the child fails to complete the test successfully within five minutes, his performance is considered a failure. If he stops before the time limit is up with the blocks incorrectly placed, he is asked, Is that right ?" If this question fails to call his attenhow

'1

tion to his errors, a failure is recorded. In either case, as with the Formboard, the child is then taught how to solve the problem, with the minimum instructions necessary. The directions for the second trial, "Now I want you to try it over again, and see whether you can

do it much faster.

Young's requires

Try

to

use

both hands this time."

Slot Maze A is the third

performance

given.

test

This

also two trials, each with a five minute time limit. The directions are, "Do you see this little boy ? This is his shoe. The boy wants his shoe. Now I want you to take it to him. See how

quickly

you can take the shoe to the

boy."

These directions

are

sometimes inadequate to make the child begin the test. The exam1' iner then says, Take the shoe to the little boy?find the right path. He will get tired of waiting for it.'' If the child fails to complete the test, the examiner takes the shoe back to the beginning and from there guides slowly along the correct path to the boy, cautioning the child to watch

trial,

with the

carefully. The subject is then given a second instruction, "See if you can take it to him faster

this time." Tests

made of the

visual, auditory, and reverse memory The usual Stoelting span for digits. is cards are used. The visual digit span usually tested first, with the following procedure: "I am going to show you some numbers. I want you to read them for me one by one, then I am going to cover are

spans, and of the

learning

them up, and ask you what you read." If the child fails on a series of digits, he is given another series of the same length. If he also fails the second, he is given a trial at the next longer series. If he fails this, we consider that the first failure showed the true limit of his span. In giving the auditory span, the examiner says, "Now this time, I am going to read you some numbers. I want you to listen very say

just

visual

and when I

am

through I

want you to

as with the procedure "When the limit of the span is reached, the examiner the series one higher than the auditory span until the child

span.

repeats

carefully

what I said.''

The

same

is followed

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL

269

is able to give it correctly. If the number of repetitions is over ten, the test is marked failure and dropped at once. This is the learning span. The concept of reverse span is too difficult for a great many six year olds, and the examiner drops the test rather than lose the child's co-operation by too many repetitions. The procedure in giving the reverse span is to say to the child, "Now I want you to say some numbers backward, that is, if I say 1-3, you will say do see? Just the opposite of what I say." If the

3-1,

you

get the idea, the examiner may say, "Well, supwhat would you say?" If the child hesitates, say "4?and what was the other number?" Then another series is given, and so on until the limit is reached, two series of the same number of digits being given in case of failure. Simon The starred tests of the Terman Revision of the Binet in giving these Series are used. The usual procedure is followed in the case of foreign children, when simpler wording tests, child still fails

Pose I said

to

2-4,

except

is substituted.

We know the child's grade and

rating also,

but in order to

complete

often have the teacher s our picture, a short test of

we

school proficiency is given. The reading tests consist of reading from the child's own reader on a page which has not been studied. The child is asked to read four or five lines, and is then checked by as in every naming individual words as they are pointed out. Here, test of school proficiency, the method of scoring is extremely unsatisfactory. There is no set criterion by which the reading may unfair be is therefore entirely relative. It is

judged;

the

grading no help at all. grade child to read a new page with much how help the of The difficult question is the determination have to passed the child shall be given, and still be considered made arbitrarily. test. The judgment up to this time has been The only hope of uniformity lies in the fact that nearly all the school proficiency tests were given by the same person. The test was ?f arithmetic proficiency was more satisfactory. The subject asked to count to fifty by one's, to twenty by two's, to fifty by five's, and to one hundred by ten's. He was also asked to give to expect

a

first

If he failed to count by two s, failed in some of the combinations, he might still be given credit for arithmetic proficiency. All 1 B pupils were asked to write their names, and were accredited with writing proficiency if the written. The 1 A name

simple plus

combinations within ten.

?r

was

children

legible

were

even

though quite imperfectly

also asked to Avrite their names, but if they

were

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

270

unable to do so, were given credit if they conld copy the printed letters A, B, C and D with some facility. A spelling test was attempted during the first few examinations, but the majority of the children

picked

proved

all scored by

were

to have had

no real spelling drill and to have incidentally. The school proficiency tests plus or minus judgment, with no qualifying

up very little

term such

as

good,

a

fair

or

poor.

The five hundred individual examinations given with this procedure covered a period of several months. I was present at these examinations and

was

assisted

by

members of the Clinic Staff and

by a group of students who had received thorough theoretical training in testing, and were anxious to gain practical experience. The work of these students was carefully supervised, and the students were chosen with a consideration of their accuracy, personality and natural aptitude. The staff members assisting included Dr. Rebecca Learning, Margaret C. Brooke, Kathryn D. Ewart; the graduate students, Mrs. Helen W. Brown, Eleanor Bachman, and Yale Nathanson. The undergraduates included Mary Ambler, Harriet Deacon, Beatrice Green, Beatrice McCully, Catherine Riggs, and Sanders McComsey. assist with the

A number of these students

investigation only

a

were

able to

very short time.

DATA OTHER THAN" TEST RESULTS

The information concerning the nationality of the father, was obtained from the school class card, furnishes us with

which

only a superficial picture of the probable traditions of the children's family. The following table is a percentage classification according to nationality. Percentage

Nationality

Percentage

Nationality

54.0

United States

.4

23.0

Italy

.4

Scotland

10.0

Russia

.4

Prance

England Germany Austria-Hungary

.4

Rumania

.4

Denmark

.2

Greece

Poland

.2

Czecho-Slovakia

Ireland Sweden

.2

Finland

.2

Norway

3.0 2.8 1-4 1-2 ?8 ?6 ?4

Armenia

Japan

Of the 54 per cent reported born in the United States, a large were Jews who spoke Yiddish at home and retained many

number

TEE SIX YEAR OLD

PERFORMANCE LEVEL

271

of the customs and much of the foreign tradition of the previously cent of the native immigrating generation. Two and one half per the results are that born are negroes. This percentage is so small of Irish children little influenced by it. The small proportion of that many show parentage is significant. Their names, however, a of previous but the immigration is that were of Irish

extraction,

generation.

cent of the The children of Italian born parents form 23 per total group. A special report of 100 of these cases, their peculiariD. Ewart. ties and distinctions, is being prepared by Kathryn a wide scattering The remaining 23 per cent is divided with of Italians number the large among different nations. Owing to EuroSouth of examined, the foreign born group is predominantly an ordinary of out note that pean stock. It is most interesting to least one parent of foreign at have cent public school group 46 per Since it was birth. In many cases, neither parent was American. this subject, however, impossible to secure accurate information on to show how largely no account was taken of it. These figures suffice if we are to have one education must also include Americanization, set of standards for all school children. was only parThe effort to discover the father's occupation was the child tially successful, since our only source of informationwere unable to himself. Twenty-seven and eight tenths per cent do, what is his answer the question, "What does your father at least well enough work?" The remaining 72.2 per cent answered Taussig s for the examiner to interpret and record the occupation. arrangement of five point scale classification has been used for the men,

busi-

V, the highest, includes professionalIV is made Class ness executives and secondary school teachers. school teachers. up of clerks, shop keepers, salesmen and elementary Class II the results.

Class

classified in the third division. the simpler types of consists of factory and mill workers doing unskilled, unoperation. Class I includes laborers and all totally cent 5 trained manual workers. Of this group of five hundred, per in cent group IV, 41.2 per cent in

All skilled workmen

are

group V, 10 per and the occupa11 per cent in group II, 5 per cent in group I, in tions of 27.8 per cent are unknown. The large percentage record. is an interesting "roup III, the class of skilled laborers, the group is economically of This would indicate that the major part wit or of good native inheritance well-to-do. It should possess an were in group

III,

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

272

intelligence, but little cultural background. The group is neither preponderantly of a very low nor of a very high social order, but represents the respectable, industrious, independent middle class? the so-called "backbone of the nation." DISCUSSION OF PERFORMANCE TESTS

Intelligence

has been defined

solve what for the individual is this

important

conceive

some

by

Dr. Witmer

as

If

the ability to to test

problem. analytic diagnosis, we must therefore problem which can be presented under clinical cona new

we are

item of the

ditions. ness

To

It must include enough elements of newness or strangeto require some originality and adaptability for its solution.

satisfactory clinical method is the use of perHowever, these do not only present the opportunity to evaluate the subject's intelligence, but one may also estiIt has been mate other abilities or defects in mental capacity. said that to see a problem sometimes denotes higher intelligence than to solve one. In this investigation, however, with its insistent demands for practicality, the successful solution of the various problems presented has been considered the criterion of intelligence. As an index to psychomotor competency the mechanical tests are invaluable. From the behavioristic standpoint, they offer an opportunity to observe performance under specific conditions. It was with these considerations in mind that the three performance tests were chosen as a part of our battery, in the effort to present a complete clinical picture of the first grade child. date,

the most

formance tests.

Formboard The Witmer Formboard4 has been standardized at the four year level; that is to say, at the four year level, 50 per cent of children may be expected to complete the test successfully in five minThe Formboard proved to be satisfactory for the six year level as well, though the problem it presents is apparently much

utes.

less difficult than the Witmer Cylinders. Two and six tenths per cent of the five hundred first grade children examined failed to complete the test in five minutes on the first trial. There were no failures on the second trial. It was suggested by Dr. Witmer that the time limit should be lessened to one hundred seconds, in which *

Young, Herman H. 1916, Vol. 10, No. 4.

The Witmer

Formboard,

Psychological Clinic,

TEE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL

273

there would be 10 per cent of failures on the first trial, and 2.6 per cent on the second trial. The shortening of the time to one hundred seconds would be a distinct advantage to the clinician case

point of view of the time necessary to complete an examThe percentage of failure, although increased, is not large enough to distort the results and make the procedure unsatisfrom the ination.

factory. Of the eleven blocks to be

replaced, only four present specifidifficulty to the competent first grade child. These are the equilateral and isosceles triangles, and the diamond and oblong hexagon. The two triangular blocks are placed next to each other, so that they present a more striking difficulty than if they were further apart. Placed further apart, they might be solved entirely by chance. As it is, the particularization of this part of the board, with the spaces in juxtaposition, must include The replacing of these triangles, thereone as well as the other. fore, requires a real discrimination. An error in this discrimination may not be a stupid error, but may be made because the child is more impressed by the similarities of these blocks than by their differences. It is believed by some psychologists that the perception of similarities is a higher intellectual operation than the perception of differences. The arrangement in the Biiiet series of the questions of differences at the seven year level and of likenesses at the eight year level is based on this theory. The hexagon and the diamond are placed one below the other, and present the same problem of discrimination. Once having made the error, however, since the board is self corrective, the majority of cases have no trouble in replacing the blocks correctly. The feeling of satisfaction displayed by the children on the successful completion of the Formboard test convinced the examiners of the wisdom of its selection; not only as an opportunity to observe performance, to judge of muscular co-ordination and control, discrimination, distribution of attention, efficiency and trainability, but as a valuable adjunct to that delicate adjustment called co-operation. The test is easy for competent first grade children?perhaps too easy to be a real test of intelligence?but with most young children success is a stimulus to further satisfactory performance. As in Dr. Young's investigation there is a slight sex difference in favor of the boys in each decile. Of the total, male and female, 4.6 per cent complete the test in less than thirty seconds on the first cally

any marked

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

274

trial, and 1.6 per cent complete it in less than twenty seconds on the second trial. These percentages might be considered to represent the really superior performances as in contrast to the percentages of failures as truly inferior. Cylinders With the Witmer of failure

Cylinders,

a

six year level test, the percentage

the first trial proved to be 47.6 per cent, or nearly 50 per cent, as was to be expected. On the second trial the failures dropped to 12 per cent. Here is a test which presents an adequate on

problem for six year level intelligence. The eighteen rather finely graduated cylinders differ in both diameter and height. A marked degree of analytic concentration of attention or discrimination is required if they are to be replaced correctly in five minutes. As Paschal5 points out in his standardization, this test demands distribution of attention to a greater degree than any other test The analytic diagnosis sheet standardized at the present time. includes almost no item on which a judgment cannot be made from observation of two performances on the Cylinder test. From the qualitative point of view, therefore, this test was proved invaluable. The aspect of the differences of performance displayed is impossible to present in this report. In each examiner's mind, however, the qualitative aspect far outweighed any quantitative score, as far as individual diagnosis was concerned. A striking characteristic of these first grade children is their slow rate of discharge. They have apparently no concept of speed. They become either stubborn, or entirely distracted by over urging to hurry. As has been noted in previous use of the test, the method of solution varies with age. The younger children often increase the time taken by attempting put the smaller blocks away first. In many cases these little children devote their attention to one recess at a time, trying block after block and discarding them until the correct block is found. The older child is more likely to pick up a cylinder and inspect the

to

various

recesses until he finds the correct one, or replace the cylinder series of trials and errors. The problem of the first trial is, "How shall I fit these blocks into their places?" The problem of the second trial is, '' How shall I fit these blocks in more quickly and with less trouble?" Ten and four tenths per cent failed to solve the

by

a

5

Paschal, F. C.

Pa., 1918.

The Witmer Cylinders.

Hershey

Press

Co., Hershey,

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL test

275

on either trial. Of these failures 50 per cent were and 50 per cent were girls. One and six tenths per cent solved the problem on the first trial and failed This on the second trial.

successfully

boys

figure indicates an element of chance in its solution as well as that of other performance tests, although the percentage is small. There is again a marked sex difference in favor of the as boys,

Paschal of

a

notes in his standardization. He explains this on the basis difference in attitude and poise between the male and female,

which

sets a

different problem.

Analytically, the test is by far the performance problems. Should it be necessary to make use of only one mechanical test at this age level, the Cylinders would prove of highest diagnostic value. most

enlightening

of the

Maze

The Young's Slot Maze A test contributed one type of result which neither of the above performance tests furnished so con-

clusively:

marked sex difference. Dr. Young,6 in his preliminary standardization of the test, noted this difference, a clear-cut superiority on the part of the boys. The statistics of this investigation a

confirm his

findings. In the decile divisions, the score of the boys in every division than that of the girls. A total of 11 per cent failed on the first trial; of these 72.8 per cent were girls, and only 27.2 per cent were boys; 7.6 per cent of the total group failed on a second trial; of these 68.4 per cent were girls, and 31.6 per cent were boys. A total of 4 per cent failed on both trials of the Maze; 75 per cent of these were and 25 per cent boys. is

higher

Aside from this marked

girls,

difference of which Dr. Young felt satisfactory interpretation, the Maze test revealed nothing which the other two mechanical puzzles did not show. The construction of the test with its little sailor boy waiting for his toj shoe is undoubtedly attractive and stimulating to a child's imagination. This might almost be considered a fault in dealing with first

he could make

sex

no

grade children. It is difficult at times to determine whether the is truly unable to solve the test, or whether he has merely discovered in the shoe, the boy, and the devious path, a new plaything which he is reluctant to give up. He pushes the shoe into all the blind alleys, goes back to the beginning, and repeats the same Procrastination. There is a certain sphinx-like quality about chil-

subject

8

N?s.

Young,

3 and 4.

Herman H.

Slot Maze

A, Psychological Clinic,

Vol.

XIV,

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

276

dren of this age which renders uncertain the discrimination between this play spirit and real inability to grasp the problem. Children from four to eight years are, in the main, quite self-sufficient. They have resources within themselves. They present an inscrutable exterior, which reveals nothing of the content of their minds. Too much prodding or urging to complete a test or answer a question makes many children retreat into their shells, or, at the other treme, produces a confused and frightened excitement.

ex-

The method of solution of the test varies children.

The

into

a

Maze for

a

run

girls are blind alley,

greatly with different certain distance successfully, and then retreat to the beginning of the

prone to go

a

Dr. Witmer suggests that this difference in training which leads to a

fresh start.

method of attack is due to the feminine

return home in the face of any encountered

difficulty. One might Maze, in a mild way, represents a hazard which requires a certain spirit of adventure to surmount. Boys prove to have this spirit of adventure but girls, trained to a The

carry this still further.

sense

of caution which social usage has made necessary, are repush ahead without turning back to consider. The

luctant to poorer

grade

of

children,

both

and

boys

girls,

run

into

a

blind alley

often satisfied to try for several minutes to force the shoe through the solid wood to another slot. The test takes an appreciable amount of time to give; 28.8 per cent of the children took and

are

three minutes

or

more to

cent took three minutes

complete or over

it the first

on

time, and 18.2 per the second trial. The Maze

excellent opportunity to observe, according to Young, long it takes the child to learn how to solve the problem of delivering the shoe." "The second trial decrease in time is not the result of increased efficiency in the physical manipulation of the test." Dr. Young made no attempt to teach the child the solution

gives

an

"how

of the Maze test after failure

on

the first trial.

Our method of

teaching experiment, tried without consultation entirely with the maker of the test. Seventeen per cent failed on the first trial, and this percentage was reduced to 6.8 per cent on the second was

an

trial by the method of teaching used, even though the latter seemed rather difficult and left much to be desired. In many cases a longer time was required for the second trial. This was not always due to the fact that the first solution was pure chance. It was often the result of the subject's seeking to discover some shorter way to deliver the shoe than by the tortuous path traveled on the first trial.

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL On the than do the

whole, girls.

277

the

boys do better with the performance tests Variation in age among first grade children seems to have no bearing on successful solution of the problem. The child's initial interest in the tests as games frequently makes him inattentive to the directions, when they are being given to him. Often he catches only one and for this phrase of them,

perhaps,

reason, takes longer for the solution. The type of material represented by the Formboards is sufficiently unfamiliar to arouse the

curiosity

of any

normally responsive

child.

Memory Span As

previously stated, four forms of the memory span test were employed: the audito-vocal digit span, the visuo-vocal digit span, the reverse and the learning spans. The frequency mode for the

auditory

and for the visual span, four. In the adults, the visual span is usually one higher than the auditory. These first grade children are not so familiar with numbers. The mere mechanics of reading and naming the numspan was five

case of

digits,

bers involve additional mental effort. This seems to be the only explanation for the consistent result of an auditory span of one

more to

digit

learning

than the visual span. Young children are accustomed almost entirely through auditory and motor training.

The curriculum of most public schools is so arranged that until the third grade or above, the major part of the- material given to the children is presented in an auditory or kinajsthetic fashion. The auditory

provides a speedy though somewhat rough Learning7 found with her group at the fifteen year level, a high memory span is not always of the same diagnostic significance. The high score may be due to "special facility in using language, to echolalia, to the grouping of digits, or unusually good visual or auditory imagery." In the six year

diagnostic

span

measure.

As

level group,

a memory span of less than four has been considered marked indication of real mental defectiveness. Three and eight tenths per cent of the children tested in this investigation bad a span of three. None fell below three, except one little Italian boy, who was so negativistic that it was to get him to

previously

a

impossible

give any span. The examiners were unwilling to call these children with a span of 3, feeble-minded. Ranged beside the rest of the group, however, they do appear inferior or deficient. They *

Op.

cit.

Note 1.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

278

always deficient in

every test, but if a composite score all the tests, this group would fall into the lower end of the distribution. It may be said, therefore, that an auditory span of three given by a first grade child should make

are

not.

to be made

were

on

the clinician suspect present or future retardation. In some cases, of course, general poor physical tone may account for poor performances. Many of these children are of a physically infantile The memory span test, acording to Humpstone,8 explores " associability. Associability refers to the number of discrete pertype.

ceptions

associated in

a

single

act of

attention,

and the combination

of the associated component parts of a single perception."9 From the results, it is evident that it is necessary for a child to be able to

perceptions in a single act of attensatisfactory progress in school. For instance, in learning to spell the word "play"?the child with a span of only three must hear the letters repeated a number of times until his learning span is reached, in order to grasp the four letters and associate them. More repetitions will then be necessary in order that he may retain permanently the "associated component parts." This means that this child will always require more drill and more associate four

discrete

or more

tion in order to make

time to learn than the child with The

use

of the

cept of "reverse"

longer span. proved little except that the condifficult for such young children. Fortya

reverse span

too

was

two and four tenths per cent of the children failed to reverse span.

A

high

reverse span

did

seem

to

signify

give any a higher

It is more important at this age level than at an older one, where the subject may be shrewd enough to know how to "beat the game." The inability to give a reverse span did not necessarily denote a lack of intellectual development. The importance

intellectual level.

of this span is, therefore, a positive rather than a negative matter. The learning span?the number of repetitions necessary to

increase the auditory

very interesting results. Twenty-six and four tenths per cent failed to increase their To some extent this might be said to span after ten repetitions. show the constancy of the auditory memory span at this level and span one

digit?brought

On the other hand, it is more likely that it denotes a low degree of trainability on the part of these children. Fifty-six and age.

Humpstone, H. J. Some Aspects of the Memory Span?a Study in Associability. Psychological Clinic Press, Philadelphia, Pa., 1917. Witmer, Lightner. Analytical Psychology. Ginn and Company. 8

8

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL six tenths per cent raised the span

one

digit

on

279

from two to six

repetitions. This gives a fair index of trainability for the group. In giving this test we noted that little children quickly became discouraged when they found that they were not succeeding in what was

asked of them.

The greatest tact had to be exercised to

en-

The examiners felt that many children courage them to persist. failed because, after five or more repetitions, they really abandoned all effort to succeed.

petitive spirit

First grade children possess little of the comon this score like older children.

and cannot be roused

The results of the four memory span tests confirm other inin that no appreciable sex difference appears. The length of the span in any of the tests seems somewhat dependent

vestigations,

If the six year on chronological age as well as mental development. level may be considered the level of congenital competency then the endowment of the six year old is the nucleus of all further development. "What seems to be increased capacity is nothing more than proficiency, depending on the ability to organize and retain. It is possible that the modal span of four to five obtained from children of the six year level is the true span, and the higher spans secured from older children and adults are the result merely of

grouping

or

organization,

and not

a

true span.

Binet Test The starred tests of the Terman Revision of the Binet-Simon were used for two reasons: first, for the benefit of the school

series

authorities,

to whom

we

sent

reports; second, from the standpoint

of the social and environmental picture which they provide as a background for qualitative judgments. The test is long and tedi-

give, because of the number of questions and the slowness which with However, it does supply an young children respond. with a child, which for several minutes' conversation opportunity

ous to

or confirm the preliminary diagnosis, which the As Dr. Learning points out, a diagnosis based furnish. other tests on the Binet intelligence quotient alone is unwise and unjust. Language ability is an overwhelming factor in success with the

serve

to alter

tests.

A high

and make it wise reach.

vocabulary score will carry the child to higher levels possible for him to try tests which he would not otherA low vocabulary score, on the other hand, often

makes it necessary to slide down to a younger level for the basal age. Not only is facility in the use of language necessary, but good

280

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

language comprehension is the basis of the whole series. A child whose general level of competency is otherwise only mediocre often scores a high intelligence quotient because his home training has provided him with the sort of information necessary to answer the majority of the Binet questions. The child of foreign born and nonEnglish speaking parents may present a much better general picture, and attain only a low intelligence quotient because of this very lack of training, and not a lack of mental ability. However, because of the fact that it does bring out these differences in social background, training and language equipment, the series is a valuable part of the array of tests. Terman emphasizes the fact that the concept of mental age does not mean that every normal individual acquires a certain mental age at

a

corresponding chronological

age.

There is wide

variation among individuals. Though few of the children in this investigation were weighed and measured, and only estimates of

physiological

age were

made, yet

the examiners all felt that the

growth index of the subjects influenced their mental ages. Miss Jones' results with her superior group seem to confirm this imThe looseness of the term "six year level" is evident from the range of chronological age covered?the youngest child is four years eight months old, the oldest eleven years. The lowest mental age is three years six months, and the highest ten years.

pression.

Terman's, which showed a wider variation chronological age. The intelligence quotient range is from 49 to 160. Sixty-five and four tenths per cent of the children examined obtained intelligence quotients of 100 or more. Only 1.8 per cent had an intelligence quotient of 70 or less, which Terman These results differ from

of mental than of

defines Dr.

as

denotative of feeble-mindedness.

Learning's

results?she found her range of

This is contrary to

intelligence quotients

low.

Our group shows a greater scattering; the intelligence quotients falling lower and going higher, 49-160, as opposed to her

results,

50-147.

The

explanation

of their difference is clear.

At

younger age, the child has more opportunity for a high score, because the tests which he may try above his chronological age cover

a

a

greater range.

year

or

The fifteen year old has no tests above the eighteen open to him. With the starred series no

superior adult level

test of memory span appears until the nine year

level,

twelve, sixteen and eighteen year levels the forward

while at the

or reverse

spans.

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL

281

both, are tested. A specific deficiency in memory span is, therefore, not likely to lower the younger child's intelligence quotient. or

giving the Binet series, four substitutions of tests were At the five year level definition of words (test 4) was used instead of discrimination of weights (test 1). At year nine making In

made.

change (test 3) was substituted for discrimination of weights (test 2). This change was made because previous investigations had demonstrated the fact that weights are a difficult piece of apparatus to keep. They disappear frequently and need numerous replaceAt the five year level the child was asked his age instead the execution of three consecutive commands. This was necessary because of the number of examiners working in the same ments.

of

giving

room.

the

The distraction caused by one of the subjects walking about to execute the commands made the giving of the tests

room

impossible. At the ten year level memory span, an alternate for sixty word test (test 6), was substituted as a time saving device. Aside from these four changes the regular starred tests of the Terthe

man

Revision

were

used.

RESULTS ON INDIVIDUAL BINET TESTS

^el IV

VI VII VIII IX X XII

Minus

Plus

Age

3

2

1 6

5

5

5

1

3

4

5

59

58

57

58

2

3

4

6

127

126

137

119

1

2

3

4

300

265

288

266

1

2

5

6

"347

375

305

260

2

3

4

6

"145

331

242

94

1

3

4

5

28

29

39

47

1

2

5

6

No. of

cases

Test No. No. of

cases

Test No. No. of

cases

Test No. No. of

cases

Test No. No. of

cases

Test No. No. of

cases

Test No. No. of

cases

Test No. No. of

35

15

8

5

Test No.

4

1

4

5

6

7

8

0

0

1

2

4

2

cases

Test No. No. of

cases

3

12

111

0

13

4

1

5

12

4

2

3

4

6

22

23

10

28

1

2

3

4

37

70

40

61

12

5

6

100

173

215

121 2

3

4

6

307

132

2I6

354

13

4

5

306

312

313

325

12 90

88

5

6

86

48

1

4

5

6

7

8

3

22

21

17

19

6

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

282

ANALYSIS OF BINET TESTS

The results of an analysis of the individual Binet tests provide interesting data. The score of the majority of tests falls beOn either side of these tween six and eight years in the series. some

limits, there is only

a

scattering

of results.

Year Six At the six year level the most interesting fact observed is the large balance on the plus side, only a small minority failing in any At this age level, in distinguishing the right from the left, 89 per cent of the children given this test passed it successfully. However, only 65.8 per cent of the children in the investigaof the tests.

tion

attempted

and left "has

it. a

Terman10 says that the distinction between right more or less mysterious diffi-

certain inherent and

culty." The group tested has a practical background and had evidently mastered this distinction early, possibly in connection with games or certain school activities. Test 2, finding omissions in pictures, proved to be the most difficult at this level. The pictures in themselves are open to criticism. The drawings are crude. The child undoubtedly does not have a "perceptual familiarity" with human forms of this sort.

amusing

as

Some of the

indicative of the child's

answers to

experience.

the test

were

A number of the

lady with no eyes had something wrong powder and rouge. Other children said that the lady with no arms was not dressed, the gown in the picture being of such an old style that the children found it totally unfamiliar. Test 3, counting of thirteen pennies, was next in simplicity to the discrimination of right and left. Again, the practical background of these children has made them familiar with the handling of pennies, and the necessity for rendering account of money "spent at the store." Test 4, comprehension, was particularly significant in demonstrating the child's social orientation, (a) "What is the thing to do if it is raining when you start to children remarked that the

with her face because it lacked

school?" that

'4

this

Our most

common answer was

answer may

reasonably

be scored

"Run."

plus,

if it

Terman says can be ascer-

tained that the child is accustomed to meet the situation in this The social status of the way. majority of our group convinced 10

Terman, Louis M. Measurement of Intelligence. Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale. Houghton Mifllin Co.,

and Extension 1916.

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL us

that the most

frequent

answer was an

intelligent

283

response. Some

children replied with the special conditions imposed upon them at the school; such as, "Go to the basement and leave my umbrella.'' (b) "What is the thing to do if you find that your house is on fire?"

given to this question were not unusual; the reply was "Call the firemen"; the most common incorrect reply was "Cry." (c) "What is the thing to do if you are going some where and miss your car 1'' The correct answer, "Wait for another," was commonly given. One of the more modern means of meeting the situation was the cool response, "Call a taxi." Oddly enough, this remark was not made by a private school child of well-to-do parents but by the son of a garage mechanic. Many children said incorrectly, "Go home again," or The

answers

most common correct

"Get lost."

Year Seven level approximately 75 per cent of those year given the test answered correctly the number of fingers on each hand and both hands together. Terman believes that this throws The most light on the child's spontaneous interest in numbers. instead his fingers common failure is due to the counting At the

seven

subject's answering at once. Test 2, description of pictures, is an interesting one as a qualitative differentiation of imagination as well as of home training, (a) The Dutch Home, for instance, brings from the children of a low social order some such description as this: the little girl is crying; she wanted to go out and her mother hit her because she was mad;?or, the little girl is crying because she is hungry and they have nothing to eat but bread, (b) The River Scene was apparently less stimulating. Again, however, surroundings to which they are accustomed influence the answers. Some children had never seen a canoe, and knew nothing whatever of Indians. One or two assumed that the "lady" was out with her "boy friend," and being slightly frightened, the gentleman was gallantly protecting her. (c) The Post Office picture brought a number of interpretations, not mere descriptions. One child suggested that it was war time and that the men were reading about a brave deed of one of the boys from the town. Frequently the of answer was: They are reading the comics.'' The elaboration alnot was It description varied widely with different children. ways those of superior competency who answered the questions most satisfactorily. Test 5, the giving of differences, showed 60 per of

'1

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

284

This test is

highly significant when compared with eight year level, the perception of similarities. A little answered these questions correctly. Four hundred cent 50 over per children were asked to give differences, and 458 to seventy-eight The perception of differences is generally congive similarities. ceded to be a simpler operation than the perception of likenesses. E. Claparede says in an article "La Conscience de la Ressemblance et la Difference chez 1'Enfant" that the child has only a small number of reactions. Our modes of action are infinitely less diverse than our modes of feeling; thus a crowd of distinct objects will raise analogous reactions. It is the shock between the too general reactions and individual character of things which causes feelings of difference. The child has more chances of being shocked by unrecognized differences than by resemblances. The spontaneous discovery of resemblances seems to offer more difficulty. M. Claparede ends by saying that that which responds to no need is not perceived. Test 6, drawing of the diamond, was given to all the children, regardless of whether or not they reached this age level of the Binet test. Somewhat over 50 per cent of those given this test as a part of the Binet series, passed it successfully. cent correct.

test 4 at the

Year The

eight

year

level,

test

Eight 2, counting

backwards

from

20 to

1,

proved difficult for about 53 per cent. This test appears to explore training and not native ability in any sense. Terman regards it as one

of attention

or

prolonged thought

control.

If such be the

case, the percentage of failure could be explained by the high distractability of first grade children. Test 3, comprehension, again

fits in another

portion

of the

sociological picture,

(a)

"What's the

for you to do when you have broken something which belongs to some one else?" The majority of the children made the correct

thing

suggestion of restitution or apology; the higher social class suggested apology more frequently, while the lower social strata recognized the old law of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," now the code of the streets. A great many of the colored children answered "run," an instinctive expression of generations of such training. A number of children answered "Go to jail," or "Get

locked

up." Very few suggested mere confession, (b) "What is thing for you to do, when you are on the way to school and notice that you are in danger of being tardy?" The word "late" the

285

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL was

substituted for "tardy."

varied.

Some children

said,

ness was

marked in the

same

The

"Go way

home," as

question explained that

answers to

and

this

were

late-

A return home was the situation. Others

absence.

therefore an intelligent method of meeting suggested getting in the '' late line''; some failing

to

get the exact

shade of the question, suggested going to the office for an excuse. The predominant correct answer was "Run." (c) "What's the for you to do if a playmate hits you without meaning to do Social training had a marked influence on the answers to this question. The doctrine of the streets dictated, "Hit him back." In some neighborhoods the instinctive defense reaction is intelligent for purposes of self preservation, since hesitation might

thing it?"

suggestion of pardoning the playcorrect response was, "Do nothing, infrequent; the usual on go playing." Test 6, the vocabulary, proved to be another valuable qualitative test, and one which, according to Terman, exoften

mean

annihilation.

The

mate was

plores the range of ideas. Binet

Gown

Tap

Vocabulary Analysis

No vocabulary?106 children Ramble 59 310 Copper Civil 236 209 Curse

Scorch

90

Puddle

288

Pork

1

238

Insure

31

Nerve

59

Envelope

348

Southern

38 12

Rule Health

358

Lecture

14

192

Dungeon

6

Eyelash

269

Skill

1

Outward

0

Juggler Regard Stave Brunette

3 0 0 2

not

Twenty-one and two-tenths per cent of the children were tested on vocabulary: i. e., their success did not carry them so high gown, in the series. The majority of children knew the word a defining it most frequently as "something you wear to bed, gallon. A common error was its definition as nightgown." associacorrect chief The was known. less well Tap apparently tion was with the game, "Tap on the finger." Scorch was a comas paratively strange word, and was frequently misunderstood chiefly occurred "squirt." Puddle was familiar. The failures among children in the congested downtown sections where puddles seem to be rare. Envelope was well known, treading close upon The rule, which received the greatest number of correct definitions. in training meaning given for rule was an evidence of the specific

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

286

grade, "something to draw lines with," or "to measure with." Only rarely was the more mature and abstract definition of rule as a pattern of conduct given. Health, demonstrated the effect of school influence in such definitions as "to be clean, to drink milk and be fat, to brush your teeth every day." About 67 per cent knew the word eyelash. Of the first ten words, copper The only correct answers were either "penwas the least known. the first

nies"

or

Curse

"wire."

one

was

of the words which

was a

part

vocabulary of the child of lower social status. Its definition usually "a bad word" or a "dirty word," but it often carried

of the was

with it additional

explanations,

which

enlightening or amuscurse" or "the priest will

were

ing. "The devil will get you if you scold you if you say that." Often a child did not realize what was asked, but remained virtuously silent, believing that he was being told to give an example. Some of the more bold even went so

far

as to

supply

article of food. and civil

Oddly,

were

insure

the

example.

Such words

as

rarely known,

was

correctly

Pork

was

familiar

as a common

southern, lecture, dungeon, and ramble had

defined by

were accustomed either to automobile

a

no

skill

associations.

number of children who

insurance, or to the monthly visits of the insurance man. slightly larger number of children knew the word nerve, although the majority of their definitions received only half credit, since the slang meaning was most comA number attempted to define brunette. They associated it mon. correctly with coloring, but were uncertain as to whether it was light or dark. There were no correct answers beyond the first twenty-four words. This scattering is significant, however, since it extends to double the number expected at the eight year level. Terman says: "We have not found one (English speaking child) testing significantly above age, who had a significantly low vocabulary; and correspondingly, those who test much below age never have a high vocabulary." This confirms the idea that the Binet series is largely dependent on facility in the use and comprehension of language. The quality of the definitions give is widely diverse. Chronological age apparently has some bearing on the type of definition ; the younger child usually confines his meanings to those of concrete use. Guesses are often hazarded in case of ignorance. Twenty and nine-tenths per cent of those given the vocabulary test passed it successfully. A

THE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL

287

Year Nine and Year Ten At the nine year level, the ratio of success to failure in all the tests is practically in inverse order to that of the six year level. At the ten year level, the number of successes with test 6, the memory span, is

dependent upon the fact that memory span may develop irrespective of experience. Above this level the few correct responses mean little

except in consideration of the individual

case.

RESULTS

The results of this investigation are presented statistically in a series of standard tables which are a part of the Witmer Diagnostic Standards. The data were first arranged in rank order distribution and divided into quintiles similar to those formulated " in her investigation of Tests and Norms at the by Dr.

Learning

later discovered that more accurate diagnostic values could be secured from more finely graduated standards. The material was then deciled, each decile containing fifty subjects of the total group. For the comparatively limited such number included in the any smaller division,

Fifteen Year Level."

It

was

investigation,

could have been of no further enlightenment. In addition to the deciles including the whole group, other tables were These again were made of the males and females separately of all the distributions divided into decile limits. The rank order the to highest results have been made, ranging from the lowest value. The first decile, therefore, always includes the lowest numerical of whether this is the highest or the as

percentiling,

value, irrespective

All of the five hundred cases examined have been included in the tables without reference to a diagnosis of normality. This is done on the supposition that in order to establish norms lowest

or

score.

standards for first

grade

children

include in the group all those who

six year level) we must members of the group with-

(the

are

out any

deliberately selective process. Our preliminary norms are, therefore, based on a six year standard of human competency, with a six year standard of normal competency. described are presented as purely statistical and noninterpretative. In addition to this quantitative presentation, the tables have been rearranged in a qualitative scale for diagnostic purposes. It is generally accepted that with the performance tests The child who completes the to a low score. preference is

no

attempt

The tables

to establish

as

given

test in the shortest time is said to have

given

the best

performance.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

288

On the other hand, the child who secures the highest intelligence quotient, the highest mental age, and highest memory span, is given the preference. The deciles have been renumbered according to these preferred patterns, the tenth decile always including the best scores, and the first decile the most inferior. The median, the maximum, and the minimum score and the 60 per cent mode have also been

given

presented

score

for each test.

have been

gathered

All those who have obtained into

one

group; the

a

percentage

of the whole which this group represents has then been determined. This percentage is given, accompanied by the percentage to which it is

instance, 3.8 auditory span of three, per cent of the children tested secured which was the lowest span given; this could then be expressed in superior,

and that to which it is inferior.

For

an

the formula 3.8 per cent superior to 0, and inferior to 96.2 per This is in accordance with the theory of Dr. Witmer, that

cent.

such percentage formulas make possible more accurate diagnosis comparing any individual to the range of human competency.

in

study of these results a composite score proficiency rating, was made for each child. Every test was arbitrarily assigned the same value. The results were arranged in rank order distribution and quintiled. Each individual's quintile rating in every test was added together and divided by the number of tests given. The figure obtained was considered the child's proficiency rating. These ratings were then plotted on a graph, and it is interesting to know that the result The procedure was abandoned was a normal curve of distribution. In the first place, it is as unsatisfactory for a number of reasons. In

a

on

preliminary

statistical

all the tests, called

a

certain that all the tests of the clinical examination

equal difficulty, and since they

proportionate

value.

are not

of

not, they should be assigned a There is then the difficulty of determining are

to which test the

highest value should be given. In the second since the average score is not a real value but merely the product of an arithmetical process, it is improbable that it provides a really valuable index to the child's general proficiency. In truth, the purpose of the psychologist is to devise a means of determining place,

special

abilities and defects. Why then, except on the basis of we defeat this end by furnishing a composite score which connotes none of the particularities of the child? The whole statistical presentation of results is prepared for

interest, should

clinical a

use

and

manner as to

is, therefore, simplified

be

as

and concentrated in such

practical and convenient

as

possible.

TEE SIX YEAR OLD PERFORMANCE LEVEL

289

CONCLUSIONS

The battery of tests selected requires too much time for each examination. The tests as a group, however, proved fairly successful as a means of securing a clinical picture of each child. I.

The Young's Slot Maze A might be dropped from the performance tests most easily, if greater efficiency in testing is to be achieved. The reverse memory span is of doubtful value at this age level. A satisfactory school proficiency test with a definite means of scoring is needed for any further investigation. II. The judgment of a first grade child's performance is estimate than on a quantitative score. Young children have no idea of striving for efficiency, and are not particularly roused by the competitive spirit. more

significant

when based

qualitative

on a

mere

III.

They

First grade children

vary as to

chronological

are

age,

far from

a

homogeneous

physiological

group.

age, mental devel-

opment, social and pedagogical proficiency. The variation among first grade children is wider and more conspicuous than among older children, because the former are not yet so thoroughly conformed to the social pattern. The environment and home training of the individual child affect his test results to a marked degree at this age level. His physical condition and his social orientation are

both factors in

success.

apparently influences the performance tests.

foreign language spoken superiority of any child in A

in the home all but the

IV. The younger the child the more difficult is a final diagnosis of his mental status. His performance may be influenced by shyness, fright, or some whimsicality of mood. V. All children in the first grade may be rated on the six from the most inferior to the year standard of human

competency

scale of six year normal competency, more cases must be examined. The minimum or least amount of competency necessary for a diagnosis of normality can be designated clearly after an investigation of the range of most

superior.

In order to establish

infant competency.

a

only

VI. Considering eight years as the maximum age permitted for entrance into first grade, the percentage of over-ageness in this group of 500 children is 8.6 per cent. The investigators feel convinced that the examination of all children entering the first grade would be of the greatest possible value for the efficiency of any school system. This age level is a satisfactory one for the analysis of the competency necessary for normal academic progress.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

290

BIBLIOGRAPHY Abramson, J. Scolaire.

Baldwin,

B. T.

Educ.

Claparede, fant.

ReCherclies sur les Fonctions Mentales de 1'Enfant a Annee Psychol., 1922, 20, 184-220. The Relation between Mental and

Psychol., 1922, 13, E.

Physical Growth.

l'Age J.

of

193-203.

La Conscience de la Ressemblance et la Difference chez l'en-

Arch, de

Psychol., 1919, 17, 325-334. Drever, J. The Vocabulary of a Free Kindergarten Child. J. of Exper. Ped., 1919, 5, 28-37. Gesell, A. A Clinical Psychology of Pre-School Children. Psych. Bull., 1923, 20, 104. Humpstone, H. J. The Analytical Diagnosis, Psych. Clinic, 1919, 12, 171173.

Humpstone, H. J. Some Aspects of the Memory Span?A Study in Associability. Psych. Clinic Press, Philadelphia, Pa., 1917. Ide, G. G. The Educability Level. Psych. Clinic, 1919, 13, 179-195. Ide, G. G. The Educabiilty Level of Five Year Old Children. Psych. Clinic, 1920, 13, 146-172. Leaking, R. E. Tests and Norms for Vocational Guidance at the Fifteen Year Old Performance Level. Psych. Clinic, 1923, 14, No. 7. MacCarthy, F. H. The Healthy Child from Two to Seven. New York: Macmillan, 1922. Pressey, L. W. Influence of Inadequate Schooling and Poor Environment Jour, of Appl. Psych., 1920, upon Results with Tests of Intelligence. 4, 91-96. Paschal, F. C. The JVitmer Cylinders. Hersliey Press Co., Hershey, Pa., 1918.

Terman, L. Terman, L.

M. M.

Measurement

of Intelligence.

Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916. Houghton Mifflin Co.,

The Intelligence of School Children.

1919.

Town, C. H. Analytic Study of a Group of Five and Six Year Old Children. University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare, 1921, I, No. 4. Whipple, G. M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. Warwick and York, Inc., 1914. Witmer, L. The Relation of Intelligence to Efficiency. Psych. Clinic, 1915, 9, 61. Witmer, L. Performance and Success. Psycii. Clinic, 1919, 12, 145. Witmer, L. The Problem of Educability. Psych. Clinic, 1919, 12, 174. Witmer, L. Efficiency and Other Factors of Success. Psych. Clinic, 1919, 12, 241. Witmer, L. The Analytical Diagnosis. Psych. Clinic, 1922, 14, 129. Witmer, L. Intelligence?A Definition. Psych. Clinic, 1922, 14, 65-67. Young, H. H. Slot Maze A. Psych. Clinic, 1922, 14, 73-82. Young, H. H. The Witmer Formboard, Psych. Clinic, 1916, 10, No. 4. For excellent full bibliography see General Review: Mental Development: B. T. Baldwin, 665-683, Psych. Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 12, 1923.

THE SIX YEAR OLD

291

PERFORMANCE LEVEL

PERCENTAGE TABLES OF SUPERIORITY AND INFERIORITY Formboakd First Trial

20

?

30

?

70

?

110

?

Percentage

Percentage

Percentage

Seconds 30

4.6




05.4

70

72.4




110

14.0




23.0 9.0

150

3.2




5.8




3.8

150

?

190

2.0

190

?

DNC

1.2




2.6

2.6




0

DNC Minimum

Maximum Median 60% Mode

21 seconds. 283 seconds

plus 13

failures.

49 seconds. 35-76 seconds. Forhboard Second Trial

15

?

20

1.6







93.0 97.4 99.0

>

20

?

60

91.4

60

?

100

4.4




0

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC

292

Cylinders Second Trial Seconds

Percentage

Percentage

20

40

8




86.2 58.6

80

120

27.6




120

160

19.0




39.6

160

200

11.2




28.4

200

240

6.8




21.6

240

280

5.0




16.6

280

290

1.6




15.0

290

DNC

3.0




12.0

12.0




0

DNC Minimum

25 seconds.

Maximum

300 seconds

Median

135 seconds.

60%

Mode

plus

60 failures.

90-250 seconds.

Maze A First Trial Seconds

Percentage

18?30

Percentage

Percentage

5.2




94.8

5.2

>

64.8

30

70

30.0




0




3.8




33.2




74.6




90.4




98.2




99.8




0







17.0 17.2 23.4 54.6




85.0