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The Black Experience and the Film Industry* ROLAND S. JEFFERSON, M.D., Los Angeles, California
THE BLACK experience, as lived by black Americans, is an existence and an entity unique on earth. More important than today's definition of the black experience is its history in this country. There are many unanswered questions about this history as well as questions that need asking. Only recently has there been an awareness that our history was kept from us by exclusion, neglect or indifference. As a result, the demand by the community that our children be exposed to this history in the educational system has begun the long and difficult task of educating 30 million black people to the richness, pride and strength of a heritage that was here-to-fore felt to be either nonexistent or unimportant. There is a facet of our history unfolding before our eyes which provides candid views on a visual level, of the black experience and the circumstances and perimeters which shaped and determined its structure. At the present time this facet is being commercially exploited by the film industry whose sole motivation is economic. The so-called, 'Black Film Boom' is on the wane, but is still a strong and economically viable entity. It is this entity to which the thrust of this paper will be addressed. Many believe that the current wave of black films and the black presence in films is new and a first time situation. The TNT Jackson's, the Sheba Baby's, the Stud Brown's and the Boss Nigger's are all spinoffs from Sweetback, Shaft and Superfly which, in and of themselves are descendants of a film history that goes back 82 years. In order to understand the black presence along with the themes of today's depiction of the black experience on film, one must know and Read before the Section on Psychiatry and Neurology at the 80th Annual Convention of the National Medical Association, Miami Beach, Florida, August 10-15, 1975.
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understand black filmic history. Only then can the relevance of the Poitier's the Park's, the Davis's and the Dixon's, be understood and the roles played by the Jim-Brown's, the Roundtree's, the Hooks's, the O'Neal's, the Grier's, the Sand's, the McGee's and the Cash's be placed in proper perspective. Shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War the daguerreotype film process was developed and the first known photographic record of man began. Photohistorians of the Civil War era have a multitude of photographs that depict life among the black soldier during that period of our history. As photographic techniques improved, the photographic record of black life multiplied and although the pictures were stills and one dimensional, they carried their message well. In comparison to white equivalents, it was clear to the viewer who inherited the earth and who inherited poverty along with second class citizenship. With the approach of the end of the century a new medium of photographic imagery was developed, the motion picture. With this development, a living record of the black experience was begun and, more than any other medium developed before or since, had a pronounced effect on the images through which black men and women would live out their lives. Interestingly enough, it was Thomas Edison who began photographing blacks in 1893, but the first feature film to star a black character was a 12 minute film in 1903 entitled, "Uncle Tom's Cabin." The black image in films was here to stay. Of course the character himself was portrayed by a white actor in blackface, thus inaugurating the film industry's long and much abused racist mechanism of ethnic substitution. This role established a precedent that was to continue with the black presence in films, that of the so-called 'Uncle Tom' image. Not until
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61 years later, in 1964, with Ivan Dixon's superb performance in "Nothing But a Man" would this image finally be laid to rest by white film makers. I say white film makers because there was a period in black filmic history when the black presence in films was controlled by black film producers and their products were the only exception to the well entrenched Hollywood stereotypes. In 1904, Edison released the first feature film to star blacks, entitled, "Ten Pickaninnies." As its name implies this was a beginning in the stereotype of the black image and featured black children clowning while the silent film credits referred to them as 'coons' . Thus with the idiotic frivolity of black children on the screen, in roles that whites created to reinforce and solidify their racist mentalities, we can see the beginnings of what was soon to become a national sickness. One of the earliest evidences of recorded filmic psychological conditioning was the divisiveness in a 1913 film entitled, "The Octoroon." Like several others made during this period, white attitudes on the racist superiority of fair skin and its advantages played against the curse of those who were not so endowed. Themes abounded about the unfortunate outcome of those (usually women) whose lives could have been infinitely better had it not been for that single drop of black blood. At this point what had only been verbalized and written about as well as practiced with respect to the treatment of this nation's black citizens, now become the 'visual image' law of the land, setting family members against one another, and creating one of this country's most entrenched and rigidly enforced psychological and physical caste systems, the remnants of which still serve to divide and classify the black community. From this point on, the film industry' s ethic of 'white is right' syndrome would dominate the role's allotted to black actresses and, unfortunately, would extend into the works of the soon-to-come black filmmakers who attempted to alter the course of the already crippled black image on film. In addition to the previously mentioned analaga of
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today's Black Superchicks, the second image to be crystalized in the role expectations of black actresses occurred in 1914 when a feature entitled ''Coon Town Suffragettes" made it's debut, in blackface of course, and introduced the obese, sexless, dominant and castrating black female image. Like its relatives, this image would last for over half a century in films and continues today in the guise of television comedy programs. By 1914, the film industry was well established and in six years would be a national institution. The majority of the role expectations had been established by 1914 and it was clear that the white majority intended the film medium to express and convey, with unprecedented clarity, their racist ideology and prejudiced mentality that would cripple the black community in search of its own definable image. But if the film medium was to be a propaganda tool in the hands of the naive, it remained for David Wark Griffith in his 1915 classic feature, "Birth of a Nation," to bring into sharp focus the tremendous and frightening power that such a tool could have. Artistically, Griffith's film permanently altered the direction of the film industry because his techniques were novel and effective. But more importantly, the film established once and for all, incontravertible proof that in the eyes of white America, black citizens, though no longer manacled by chains of steel, would continue to be enslaved mentally, socially and economically. The story line is antebellum and described the idylic life that whites had before the civil war. Following the Civil War, the film depicts the freed slaves as savages who riot and plunder in lust for vengence. But the most provocative scenes deal with slaves who are sexually attracted to the white women of the plantations. It is reported by photohistorians that when these scenes were shown, the white audiences would become so incensed that the theatres erupted in pandemonium and riots. Finally at the end, the white men band together and wearing white hoods and sheets they defeat the aggressive, arrogant and sensual ex-slaves. Again it is reported that white audiences were so enraged at the behavior of blacks in the film that when they were beaten
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by the hooded white men, they screamed and clapped in approval to the point that it became dangerous to continue showing the film. Finally after numerous race riots throughout the country and continued protestations by the NAACP and others, it was withdrawn from circulation. Bogle, in his book, "Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies & Bucks," attributes the Griffith classic to the development of the infamous 'Black Buck' or stud image. Research by this author would tend to validate that as well as a number of other assertions about the film. Certainly this first filmic display of white America's fantasy about the sexuality of black men fed on white fears and established once and for all the premise that if black men were to be used in films, from then on they would have be used in roles that castrated them. That is exactly what happened and for the next 55 years, the era of idiots, buffoons, clowns, jesters and coons dominated the image of the black male. "Birth of a Nation" also expanded the racist attitude about black women using the color theme. The older, obese sexless women were played as supportative of the white ethic and in fact defended the white owners of the plantation against their recently freed brethren. It is significant that these women were much darker, although most of the roles in the film were played by whites in blackface, while the mulatto character was endowed with a semblance of sexuality. All films subsequently produced would exploit this theme of 'white is right' and not until the seventies would the black leading lady be really black. With the advent of the filmic presentation of color divisiveness, the blueprint for white America's motion picture version of the black experience was now complete. The next 50 years would see the blueprint moved from the drafting boards to the construction stage and despite variations in the plan, the structure of the black presence in films would be built to close and exacting
specifications. In the 15 years that followed Griffith's "Birth of a Nation", the film industry experienced several phenomena that directly affected the image of black America and
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helped to establish firmly certain stereotypes that, even to this day, remain with us. The first of these was the elimination of the blackface tradition that this author prefers to label as ethnic substitution. The tradition began during slavery when blacks were forbidden to appear before whites as entertainers. With emancipation, blacks then entered the field of commercial entertainment but because the precedent of whites in blackface (burnt cork) had been established by white entertainers, blacks themselves were required to do the same, especially if they appeared before white audiences. Ironically, Griffith's "Birth of a Nation," despite it's blatently racist theme, opened Pandora's box. The film used whites in black face for the key roles and subsequently drew so much objection from the black community that Hollywood studios began opening the door for more genuine black roles. Despite this liberal concession the use of blackface in films might have continued had it not been for the development of sound in 1927. The key film was entitled, "The Jazz Singer," it staffed a white entertainer, Al Jolson, in blackface. While the film was critically acclaimed, major studios realized that while blackface worked on occasion, nothing could ever match the mythical inherent talents of black America and its music. Thus the black image in films was thrust into another dimension, ironically enough, by the myth that music and rhythm were an inherited characteristic and could not be duplicated by whites in talkie films-not even in blackface! The second entity to develop during this period was the antecedont to the so-called Hollywood musical. An all black musical entitled, "Hearts of Dixie" was the first allblack talkie to be released in 1929. Written, directed and produced by whites, the film relied heavily upon the usage of the established stereotypes of the black image. The The only singular achievement and the perimeter with which we must judge the critical performance of its cast, was the tremendous impact their musical numbers had on the audience. No doubt this is one area where they were allowed the most latitutde and least in-
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terference, culminating in an exuberant performance that was to serve as the template for all future musicals both black and white. Another all black musical appeared in the same year entitled, "Hallelujuh." Not indistinguishible from "Hearts of Dixie" in its use of stereotypes, this film is historically significant because the lead female role was the prototype of the present decade's Coffy, Sheba Baby and Foxy Brown. Forty five years ago, "Hallelujah" introduced the image of black women as sensual and immoral sex-animals, thus crystalizing the white fantasy about black sexuality. As with Hearts of Dixie and other films with the black presence, we must judge them by the circumstances, the times and the options. It is truly a credit to the actors and actresses themselves that the demeaning and debased characters they were forced to play out before the world, were done with such ingenuity and talent that many of the images lived. Though blatantely offensive and racist we must realize that while they were puppets on a string, they managed to devise a few moves of which the puppeteer was not aware. Although bound to the rigid stereotype upon which their employment depended, the characters lived and breathed and moved within that stereotype so that if one now reviews many of the old films with the black presence as did this author, critical eyes will allow you to see beyond the white dictated roles and stereotypes to visualize the magnificence of the black talent that must have ached for full expression without restriction. A third and most significant phase that occurred during this 15 year interval was the development of a thriving and legitimate black film colony. There is no comparison between the scattered and badly splintered group of black film stars of today and the small but cohesive groups of black film repertory companies that flowered during this era. The chief difference between them is that black film stars of today, while admittedly gifted with talent, have no viable production companies, theatres or distribution organizations. Oddly enough, between 1915 and 1930, the number of black financed, black produced and black exhibited films
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numbered in excess of 75. Today there are less than 10, only one or two of which remain viable. During this period, black producers attempted to bring a different quality of black life to the screen. Some were successful and some not. It is important to understand the circumstances under which this brief but effective film renaissance occurred. The country was still smarting from the wounds of the Civil War. Segregation and racist oppression were overt and direct. The country was involved in a war that changed the migration of hundreds of thousands of blacks to the cities of industry. Out of a need to survive, the black community effectively developed and utilized its survival mechanisms of church, music and cohesion among others. The white film industry, while still developing, was not yet in a position to monopolize the field because it was still new. Not until the advent of the talkies in 1927 did Hollywood then exert a stranglehold of the business of movie making, the cost of which virtually eliminated the black filmmakers. There are too many names to expand on the products of each, but there are threads of consistency amongst all of them that deserve attention. In 1914, the first film to feature a black male in the lead was entitled, Darktown Jubilee. Its showing caused a riot because whites refused to see black men in any role but demeaning. Thus the film was removed from circulation and all but forgotten. It's star, the comedian Bert Williams, seldom appeared in films after that. Following the release of Griffith's Birth of a Nation, many black film makers attempted to counter the negative image it created and numerous films began to find their way into the ghetto film houses. The list is too long to relate but some that reflect the thinking of their producers in their quest of an image for black America were, The Burden of Race, Scar of Shame, Trooper K, Ten Nights in a Barroom, and God's Stepchildren. Significant in this brief period of black film history is that these productions provided many prominent theatrical personalities the chance to advance their careers and demonstrate their unique abilities. Paul Robeson began his film career in a
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black produced film. These films had two major shortcomings. First, they were almost always undercapitalized as reflected in the poor quality that was consistently present. Secondly, as Bogle astutely points out in his book, the producers themselves, though desperate in their attempt to find an image that was a positive reflection of the black experience, found themselves caught up in the same stereotypes as the white filmmakers. When one reviews these films now, with social and psychological enlightenment, the shortcomings are dramatically obvious. But these few men made an attempt at change with what little they knew and with even less to work with. A predominant theme played out during this period had to do with the problems of skin color. Many of the black produced films of that day copied the themes of the white film industry and thus fell prey to the myth that if you can get close enough in appearance to look white, you will be accepted without prejudice or discrimination. There were many black producers during this period. Noble Johnson, Leigh Whipper, Buddy Holman, Robert Levy, Emmett Scott and William Alexander, to name a few. But no one can talk about black film history without mentioning the charismatic Oscar Micheaux, generally conceded to be the dean of black film makers. Micheaux began making films in 1919 and despite financial problems, flu epidemics, the depression and white competitors, was able to continue doing so up to 1948. Of all the black produced films of that era, his were by far the best. Still his products were technically inferior to the established white film industry. It is a tribute to his aggressive ingenuity that he was able to finance films during the depression era and still maintain complete control over the production, story line, distribution and exhibition, a feat not yet duplicated by any other black film maker before or since. In addition to the previously mentioned shortcomings that plagued black film makers, that of technical difficulties due to finances, and a preoccupation with trying to convey the "white is right' theme, Micheaux was often criticized for a third fault-that of cen-
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tering his films around the life of middle class blacks who no longer lived in the ghettos. He felt that the black community should be given something to aspire toward instead of accepting the life of perpetual poverty and inadequate living conditions. Research done by this author supports the middle class as being his main focus of character development and story line but the criticism is not valid. In 1924, a white film producer, Roy Cohen began producing black films that depicted the incompetence of black professionals such as doctors, lawyers etc. This same theme was to emerge in later years in the form of Amos 'n' Andy, the series which depicted black professionals as stupid and ignorant. With that fact as a reference point, Micheaux's films about the black professional, as something to model after and work for, hardly justifies criticism. Micheaux died in 1951 but in this author's opinion, his motivation, tenacity and his legacy bequeathed on behalf of the black image in film history, can be seen in men like Melvin Van Peebles, Horace Jackson, Berry Gordy and a host of other creative film makers. As the 20's came to a close, we saw the "Our Gang' comedy films become "The Little Rascals' as the silent era gave way to the talkies. In this respect, white film makers attempted to deal with prejudice by the subtleties of denial hidden by children's antics which is to portray the fact that racial differences can be transcended and ignored in such a modality. But, if the 20's established the templates and the dies for the stereotypes of the black image, the 30's and 40's were the castings. For the next 20 years, the image of black America would be in its film heyday and move from the sublime to the ridiculous. With the exception of Oscar Micheaux, the black film makers were gone and all films about the black experience were now produced and controlled by whites. Undoubtedly the black actor whose name is most often associated with this era in films is Stepin Fetchit. There were a host of others whose roles were just as demeaning and just as offensive. But Fetchit was both the pioneer and the symbol in an era of economic
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downturn and demoralized spirits. He appeared at a time when the country needed something to give them hope, something to laugh at. That Fetchit had talent, is not debatable, for it is generally conceded that he brought to his characters an element of individuality that was beyond the request or expectations of both audience and producer. As does Bogle, James Murray in his book, 'To find an Image,' attributes much of his success on screen to his life style and flamboyant behavior off screen, which did much to reinforce the image he portrayed. Before he slipped into obscurity, Fetchit had appeared in more than 20 films as the forever-introuble village clown, the buffoon who knew his place in the white man's society. Were it not for black filmmakers like Micheaux, the history of the black image in films might have been entirely stereotypic. Anderson's performance in 'Cabin in the Sky' has to be rated as one of his finest and gave a clue to talent that in all likelihood would remain stifled under the control of the white puppeteer. Another image was being solidified by such actors as Clarence Muse and Bill (Bojangles) Robinson. They, along with many others, played the role of the passive, castrated black man who offers no threat to white society. Though immensely talented, they seldom were given the chance to expose that talent in any form other than the stereotype. 'Bojangles' Robinson is given credit for his performance in the film, 'The Littlest Rebel', opposite the child star Shirley Temple. Muse, on the other hand, seemed detached in his performances and although playing the role of the passive black male, he seemed to radiate a sense of resistance and subtle dignity that transcended the manifest humiliation the role called for. The film, 'Broken Strings,' has to be considered one of his best portrayals and must be credited with the fact that he wrote the script, as he had done with previous films. Rex Ingram has to be considered one of the great black actors of this period. His performance in the film, 'Green Pastures', drew critical acclaim. The roles he played
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were even more detached than those of Clarence Muse and gave a picture of a black man who was free within his own confines, regardless of the restrictions placed upon him. Paul Robeson's place in black film history was assured the day he was born. Indeed, this former athlete, scholar, concert singer and actor has to be considered one of the most influential black performers ever seen on the screen. Outspoken, critical and self determined, he portrayed the black man as a symbol of dignity and self respect during an era when it was not fashionable, indeed, possible to do so. As a result, this combination eventually led to his elimination from the American theatre. On many occasions he played roles that still depicted the status quo, but his manner and stature somehow transcended the realities. Robeson came to films in 1924 when he appeared in Oscar Micheaux's, 'Body and Soul'. His political statements eventually overshadowed his movie performances and he made his last film in 1942. Most critics and photohistorians agree that the film which showed Robeson at his best was 'Emperor Jones,' made in 1933. Many of his subsequent movies were made in Europe but they never quite measured up to the tremendous image and strength he portrayed in 'Emperor Jones'. If the stereotype of black men was solidified as castrated, passive and powerless by films in the 30's, so was the image of black women maligned. Louise Beavers, Ethel Waters and Hattie McDaniel were viciously used by the white film industry to establish a role for black women that unfortunately, still remains prominent today. Butterfly McQueen must be mentioned here also, for even though her image was different, she was still used by the film industry to solidify the image of black women as caricatures that lacked sexuality, were aggressive and at the appropriate time, hinted at insolence. 'Imitation of Life,' starring Louise Beavers in her finest performance has to rank as a classic. Despite the implications and the inherent denial of her status portrayed by the role, her acting drew critical raves and demonstrated that unique ability of black actors and actresses that allowed them to move
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within the framework of the stereotype. 'Gone with the Wind' gave Hattie McDaniel her best role and though it was a subservient one, as with the others, she managed to transcend the stereotype and lend a sense of creativity and individuality to a role that left little to be manipulated. The big tragedy, among many others, was the complete denial that the maids, servants and washerwomen had families themselves. Somehow the black image in terms of family never found its way onto the screen. Another ploy used by the film industry during that decade was the reinforcement of the negative stereotypes by playing one black actor or actress against each other to highlight some particular negative aspect about the other. For example, playing 'Bojangles' Robinson against Willie Best in 'Littlest Rebel'. This mechanism of racist manipulation of the puppets proved effective to the point that studios could predict the audience reaction to certain scenes. Films like 'Gone with the Wind', 'Green Pastures', 'Cabin in the Sky', 'Imitation of Life' and a host of others during the 30's firmly established the relationship of black to white; and on film there was no mistaking which color had the upper hand. Black religious beliefs were severely stereotyped in the all-black films, 'Green Pastures', 'Cabin in the Sky' and others as mysticism, magic and superstition were spoofed. This only added to the already existing negative stereotype that films had created and served to reinforce the feeling that black people were not to be taken seriously unless in their places as happy-go-lucky lacky's to the white structure. With the image of the black experience shattered and distorted, religious beliefs stigmatized and ridiculed, blacks in films continued to display the uniqueness of their talent, each in his or her own way, each for his or her own reason. But a change had to come and World War II served as the impetus, although at the time, it went unrecognized. With America deeply embroiled in war, the population longed to be entertained. The black presence in films during the 40's was a diverse and uneven experience. The psychological cycle had come full tilt and the indus-
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try recognized that theatre going audiences wanted light hearted entertainment on the screen, thus returned the musicals. Coming at the time it did, the 40's provided American film audiences a brief but comprehensive look at black entertainment at its best. There are some themes that emerged, leaving a permanent impression during this period in black cinema. More than any other decade, the 40's featured musicians and entertainers. 'Cabin in the Sky' has to be considered one of the premier films of the decade; with a long list of prominent stars from the past and a host of newcomers not the least of whom was Lena Home. The same year, another musical also starring Lena Home, 'Bojangles' Robinson, Fats Waller and a host of others entitled 'Stormy Weather' made its appearance on film. The roles were safe, allowing the entertainer to be seen as precisely that, an entertainer and nothing more. Although the period was brief and ended just after the War, it gave the opportunity for both white and black America to visualize the talents and strengths of a segment of the black image and unknowingly reinforced the myth that all blacks are born with 'natural rhythm'. Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Ada Brown, the Nicholas Brothers, Dorothy Dandridge, Count Basie, Louis Armstrong, Katherine Dunham, Lester Young, to name a few, were prominent in their screen image during this time. But just as they had quickly come on the scene, the War was over and social and psychological attitudes changed once again. 'Song of the South' represented white Hollywood's true feelings about the black entertainer. The film, a black musical had reduced the black image to nothing more than cartoon characters interspersed between various tales of Uncle Remus. Its message was clear-the way of the antebellum south is the preferred structure of society where everyone knows his place. 'Song of the South' was the last of the musicals and not until 1954 when 'Carmen Jones' established Dorothy Dandridge as the leading black female star of the 50's, would the musical format return. Interestingly enough the cycle has come full tilt again and this author knows of some eight to 12
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black musicals now in production. Ironically they are features about the lives of earlier black entertainers, 'Bojangles' Robinson and Bessie Smith to name two. It remains to be seen whether or not the content of these films will be true to the agony and pain these performers had to endure in their quest for screen performance. But the War had signaled the rumblings of a restructured social order that would reach its peak in the 60's. With the demise of the musicals in the mid-forties, these rumblings were manifested in films that both Bogle and Murray term 'problem pictures'. These films were the first exploitation of white guilt on the part of film makers. For the first time film makers acknowledged that problems between the black and white social order existed. 'Home of the Brave' introduced black actor James Edwards in a penetrating role that attempted to free itself from traditional stereotypes. As an enlisted man in the Army, Edwards plays the part of a soldier who underwent a nervous breakdown while in combat. It is finally revealed that his decompensation was due to racism and not the stress of battle. A usual fairy tale ending was depicted, but it was important as a film because it presented a black man in an entirely new light. Two films followed that year (1949) and both dealt with the so-called problem of those blacks who try to 'pass' in the society. 'Lost Boundaries' was a true story about a black physician and his family who live undetected in a New England village until it is eventually discovered that he is black. It is important to realize that this problem was one that whites fashioned, molded and fitted to meet their needs. But the biggest insult in the film was that ethnic substitution once again reared its head and the actors were played by whites. The studios felt that white audiences could more readily identify with the crisis if the principals were white. The second film, 'Pinky,' also used ethnic substitution by having a white actress play the part of a fair skinned girl who returns to the South and reality from her make-believe world in the North where she has been passing. Ethel Water's role was superbly done
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and as her predecessors, she was able to make the stereotype role live within the confines of the restrictions. But the preoccupation of the century, that of color caste systems, imposed by whites, still emphasized the 'white is right' syndrome and how unfortunate it is to have a drop of 'colored' blood! Nevertheless, as a film, it looked realistically at issues heretofore thought impossible on the screen. A number of photohistorians feel that Juano Hernandez's portrayal of an innocent black man accused of killing a white man in 'Intruder in the Dust,' to be the best film of that decade. Its message about the inequality of the justice system and the tremendous acting talents of its lead character had much to recommend it. As with the others, it pictured the black male image in a different light and perhaps hinted at what the next 20 years would bring to the screen. The 1950's expanded the 'new image' of black America in cinema and served as the springboard that would launch the revolution of the 60's. Significant in films of this decade were the actors and actresses that portrayed the image of Black America. Sidney Poitier emerged as the sterile but none-theless black super-star of the 50's. Beginning his career in 1950 as a middle class black physician in 'No Way Out', he rose steadily, walking the thin line that made him acceptable to both white and black audiences. 'Cry, The Beloved Country,' 'BlackBoard Jungle,' 'The Defiant Ones,' 'A Patch of Blue,' 'Edge of the City,' and 'Porgy and Bess' have to rank as classics. Their message for the 50's was that blacks and whites can live together if we only try. The integrationist age had arrived and Poitier was the right man at the right time. The black female superstar who was to emerge in the 50's was Dorothy Dandridge. Having had minimal success in films of the early and mid 40's, her first film of critical acclaim was 'Bright Road'. But not until 1954, with her startling performance in 'Carmen Jones', would she then be elevated to superstar status. Just as Nina Mae McKinney had been established as the black female sex symbol of the 20's, so was Dorothy Dand-
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ridge endowed in the 50's. Despite her talent, there were but three films in which she would star of any significance, 'Island in the Sun in 1957, and 'Porgy and Bess' in 1959, in addition to 'Carmen Jones.' Like so many other talented sensual black women who appeared in films of an earlier decade, she fell prey to the 'white is right' syndrome and in keeping with that tradition, it was difficult for white Hollywood to cast her in any but a tragic role. Ultimately her life would end itself at an untimely period when just months later the new militancy would appear on the screen and would have afforded her the opportunity to perform in roles much more in line with her abilities. Ethel Waters must be mentioned as a significant force in black cinema of the 50's. Her roles during the 40's established her as a woman of immense talent. She was acclaimed in 'Pinky' but it is generally agreed that her finest performance came in 1952 when she played the role of the cook, Berenice in 'Member of the Wedding.' She was seen as a symbol of the strong black women, something she was to be later criticized for when the social revolution swept the country. But despite her detractors, credit must be given her for the superb performances. Throughout this decade numerous appearances by black actors and actresses would float across the screen. A few musicals with entertainers would be produced while Hollywood experimented with the black image in countless numbers of films. Only a few actors would endure the 50's to take advantage of the 60's and 70's. One was Harry Belafonte. His first film, 'Bright Road' in 1953, established him as a contender for the screen's first sexualized black male. His demure and cool manner restrained him. In 'Carmen Jones,' he was much the same but in the 1957 hit, 'Island in the Sun,' his image of the unyielding black man seemed to bring a deeper quality to his acting. I would have to agree with Bogle that Belafonte did not really come into his own until the 1972 feature, 'Buck and the Preacher.' I do not necessarily feel that his performance was due to maturity but more to the fact Poitier directed the script and the man with whom there was
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a great deal of mutual respect. The issue of blackness and who should determine that issue can only be brought to the screen by those who have lived the experience and have the talents to transform that experience into a filmic reality. As the 60's approached, the black presence in films would take yet another turn towards distortion that would finally culminate in the reverse stereotyping of the 70's. The transition was subtle but received a great deal of assistance from the changing social conscious and attitudes the country was undergoing. As in previous decades and eras, there are themes that clearly give us the clues to the changes in the black image in American cinema. In a war that would soon split the country, movie going audiences once again longed to whet their appetites with entertaining pieces about the black experience. Such a piece was 'A Raisin in the Sun', successfully transformed from its stage presentation, it served as the spokesman for integration. It is a significant piece of work because of its presentation of the black family, something white film makers had skillfully ignored in the past. Of its cast of prominent actors and actresses, it was the springboard to launch the talented Diana Sands. Ten years later she would turn in an excellent performance in 'Georgia Georgia.' Unfortunately, like Dorothy Dandridge her premature death would prevent her from reaching her true potential that films of the 70's would have offered. There followed a host of films that depicted the black experience in various forms: 'One Potato, Two Potato,' which had an interracial marriage theme; 'Cool World,' about an adolescent black youth's life in Harlem amid gangs, alcohol and crime; 'Black Like Me,' about a white man who darkens his skin and then goes on a journey through the south; 'The Pawnbroker,' about a Jewish pawnbroker in Harlem and the blacks he must deal with to stay alive and in business; and 'The Dutchman,' a film about a black man's fatal experience on a New York subway train. In this film, a clue to the films of the 70's can be seen in his transition from passive black man to militant before his
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death at the hands of a sick white woman. In this author's opinion, the single film that makes its statement about the black experience was the 1964 feature, 'Nothing but a Man.' I think that most photohistorians regard this work as one of the finest pieces of film artistry ever to deal with the black experience. A story about a black man who is a laborer in a small southern town and his wife. Because he is uncompromising, their life is made miserable by the racism of the towns whites. But more significantly, the film brought a warmth and dignified strength to the relationship between a black man and black woman. I'his has yet to be repeated on film. Ivan Dixon's portrayal of the lead character was certainly a clue to the change that was on the horizon. Ossie Davis cannot be overlooked during this period in American cinema. He appeared in such films as 'The Cardinal,' 'The Hill,' 'Slaves,' 'The Scalphunters' and others. He would not come into his own until the 70's when 'Cotton Comes to Harlem' and 'Black Girl' would establish him as a talent behind the camera as well as in front of it. In 1967, 'Hurry Sundown,' with its allstar cast introduced Robert Hooks as an invigorating talent. But more importantly, this story about a post war veteran who returns to the south and engages the forces of racism and bigotry was the first film to openly capture the spirit of the militant 60's. Poitier provided competition, of course, with his excellent performances in, 'Lillies of the Field,' "A Patch of Blue,' 'To Sir with Love,' 'The Slender Thread,' 'In the Heat of the Night,' 'For Love of Ivy' and the integrationist most absurd film of the 60's, 'Guess Who's Coming to Dinner.' But the tide had clearly changed, perhaps more rapidly than the integrationists had anticipated and Poitier was quickly switched to the tide as he appeared in, 'The Lost Man,' in 1969. 'The Learning Tree,' 'Uptight,' and 'Putney Swope' clearly put the handwriting on the wall and the 70's removed it from the wall and put it on the screen. If Robert Hooks, Ivan Dixon and other black actors and actresses of the mid 60's put a hole in the dike, Jim Brown must be cred-
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ited with splintering the dike into a million pieces. Bogle and Murray acknowledge his impact in the history of black cinema. Although Woody Strode was the first athlete to make the transition from sports to films, his timing was unimportant. But Jim Brown emerged on the screen in the midst of political and psychological turmoil and it must be conceded that he, more than any other black actor or actress of the 60's crystallized the militant mood of the country and fused all previous images of black men into a single overpowering entity that would dominate the screen in the 70's. In the film, '100 Rifles,' the interracial theme was highly exploited and Hollywood finally acknowledged the sensual black male as an image they could no longer contain. Although this image would be severely criticized by the black community, it must be remembered that white Hollywood emasculated and castrated the black male image from the first day the black experience was placed on film. Ironically the image they sought so desperately to keep out of films during the formative years of American cinema, proved to be the one image they could exploit more ruthlessly in films about the black experience in the 70's. In summation, I have tried to point out critical aspects of the development and portrayal of the black experience on film. The history is long and rich and colorful. The demeaning roles, the humiliating stereotypes, the offensive gestures and sexless, powerless images of black men and women that paraded before movie audiences for more than half a century were the creations of white society and in particular white-controlled Hollywood. The actors and actresses themselves were nothing more than puppets on a string at a time, in a country when there were and still are, few options available to the black community. While I do not condone the actions of these actors and actresses, the pain and discomfort they experienced at the hands of an industry that offered them crumbs, transcends any criticism. For those who would be harsh on the individuals and their portrayals it must be remembered that they were conditioned to be(Concluded on page 147)
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Diabetes
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10. MIKAMI, S. I. and K. ONO. Glucagon Deficiency Induced by Extirpation of Alpha Islets of the Fowl Pancreas. Endocrinology, 71:464, 1962. 11. GUAL, C. and A. KASTIN, and A. V. SCHALLY. Clinical Experience with Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones. Recent Progress Horm. Res., 28:242, 1972. 12. BRAZEAU, P. and W. VALE, R. BURGUS, N. LING, M. BUTCHER, J. RIVIER, and R. GUILLEMIN. Hypothalamic Polypeptide that Inhibits the Secretion of Immunoreactive Growth Hormone. Science, 179:77, 1973. 13. GERICH, J. E. and R. LOVINGER, G. M. GRODSKY. Inhibition of Glucagon and Insulin Release from the In Vitro Perfused Rat Pancreas by Somatostatin. Program of the 56th. Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society, 1974, p. 190. 14. GERICH, J. E. and M. LORENZI, V. SCHNEIDER, J. H. KARAM, J. RIVIER, and
R. GUILLEMIN. Effects of Somatostatin on Plasma Glucose and Glucagon Levels in Human Diabetes Mellitus. N. Eng. J. Med., 291:544, 1974. 15. DUBOIS, M. P. Immunoreactive Somatostatin is Present in Discrete Cells of the Endocrine Pancreas. Proceedings Nat'l Acad. Sci. U.S., 1340, 1975. 16. LILLEHEI, R. C. and R. L. SIMMONS, J. S. NAJARIAN, R. WEIL, H. Ucheida, J. 0. Riuz, and F. C. GOETZ. Pancreaticoduodenal Transplantation: Experimental and clinical experience. Ann. Surg., 172:405, 1970. 17. NAJARIAN, J. S., C. M. KfELLSTRAND, R. L. SIMMONS, T. J. BUSCHMEIER, B. V. HARTIZSCH, and F. C. GOETY. Renal Transplantation for Diabetic Glomerulosclerosis. Ann. Surg., 174:471, 1973.
(Hartman, from page 103.)
(Jefferson, from page 144.)
LITERATURE CITED
lieve that what they were doing was right and acceptable just as we were conditioned to watch and laugh. It is a tribute to the unique abilities of these men and women who were able, despite the roles they were required to play, to transcend the stereotype and make them live as individuals within the roles. If you, as did this author, spend days and nights on end reviewing the past filmic works of these artists, you can clearly see the tremendous talent that was wasted. Yet beyond that waste they were able to manipulate the strings of the puppeteer without his knowing it. They have left black America a legacy of racism on film, not by their own doing, but as tools of a racist society. How wonderful it would be to see the puppets cut the strings and allow their talent to expand and mushroom to its full glorious expanse. Perhaps their progeny will develop the ability to cut the strings.
1. GELDER, M. G. and F. GRIFFITHEDWARDS. Double-blind Controlled Trial of Metronidazole in Alcoholic Patients. Paper read at 13th Congress of International Institute for Treatment of Alcoholism, Zagreb, 1967. 2. FRIEDLAND, P. and J. MARTIN-SEMER, M. VAISBERG and A. GREENBERG. The Use of Metronidazole in the Treatment of Alcoholism-A Pilot Study. Am. J. Psych., 123:722, 1966. 3. LEHMANN, H. E. and T. A. BAN and E. NALTCHAYAN. Metronidazole in the Treatment of the Alcoholic. Psychiat. & Neurol., 152: p. 395, 1966. 4. LEHMANN, H.E. and T.A. BAN. Chemical Reduction of the Compulsion to Drink with Metronidazole: A New Treatment Modality in the Therapeutic Program of the Alcoholic. Cur. Thera. Res., 9:419, 1967. 5. VAN PELT, S. J. Alcoholics Limited and Hypnosis. Brit. J. Med. Hypnos., 9:2, 1958. 6. BRYAN, W. J., Jr. The Treatment of Alcoholism. J. Am. Inst. Hypno., 2:1, 1961. 7. LEMERE, F. Psychotherapy of Alcoholism. J.A.M.A., 171:106, 1959. 8. KROGER, W. S. The Conditioned Reflex Treatment of Alcoholism. J. A.M.A., 120:714, 1952. 9. WOLBERG, L. Medical Hypnosis, Vol. I. Grune and Stratton, New York, 1948. 10. MILLER, M. M. Treatment of Chronic Alcoholism by Hypnotic Aversion. J.A.M.A., 171:164, 1959.
81st Annual Convention
National Medical Association Nashville, Tennessee August 8-12, 1976
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The Black Experience and the Film Industry* ROLAND S. JEFFERSON, M.D., Los Angeles, California
THE BLACK experience, as lived by black Americans, is an existence and an entity unique on earth. More important than today's definition of the black experience is its history in this country. There are many unanswered questions about this history as well as questions that need asking. Only recently has there been an awareness that our history was kept from us by exclusion, neglect or indifference. As a result, the demand by the community that our children be exposed to this history in the educational system has begun the long and difficult task of educating 30 million black people to the richness, pride and strength of a heritage that was here-to-fore felt to be either nonexistent or unimportant. There is a facet of our history unfolding before our eyes which provides candid views on a visual level, of the black experience and the circumstances and perimeters which shaped and determined its structure. At the present time this facet is being commercially exploited by the film industry whose sole motivation is economic. The so-called, 'Black Film Boom' is on the wane, but is still a strong and economically viable entity. It is this entity to which the thrust of this paper will be addressed. Many believe that the current wave of black films and the black presence in films is new and a first time situation. The TNT Jackson's, the Sheba Baby's, the Stud Brown's and the Boss Nigger's are all spinoffs from Sweetback, Shaft and Superfly which, in and of themselves are descendants of a film history that goes back 82 years. In order to understand the black presence along with the themes of today's depiction of the black experience on film, one must know and Read before the Section on Psychiatry and Neurology at the 80th Annual Convention of the National Medical Association, Miami Beach, Florida, August 10-15, 1975.
*
understand black filmic history. Only then can the relevance of the Poitier's the Park's, the Davis's and the Dixon's, be understood and the roles played by the Jim-Brown's, the Roundtree's, the Hooks's, the O'Neal's, the Grier's, the Sand's, the McGee's and the Cash's be placed in proper perspective. Shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War the daguerreotype film process was developed and the first known photographic record of man began. Photohistorians of the Civil War era have a multitude of photographs that depict life among the black soldier during that period of our history. As photographic techniques improved, the photographic record of black life multiplied and although the pictures were stills and one dimensional, they carried their message well. In comparison to white equivalents, it was clear to the viewer who inherited the earth and who inherited poverty along with second class citizenship. With the approach of the end of the century a new medium of photographic imagery was developed, the motion picture. With this development, a living record of the black experience was begun and, more than any other medium developed before or since, had a pronounced effect on the images through which black men and women would live out their lives. Interestingly enough, it was Thomas Edison who began photographing blacks in 1893, but the first feature film to star a black character was a 12 minute film in 1903 entitled, "Uncle Tom's Cabin." The black image in films was here to stay. Of course the character himself was portrayed by a white actor in blackface, thus inaugurating the film industry's long and much abused racist mechanism of ethnic substitution. This role established a precedent that was to continue with the black presence in films, that of the so-called 'Uncle Tom' image. Not until
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61 years later, in 1964, with Ivan Dixon's superb performance in "Nothing But a Man" would this image finally be laid to rest by white film makers. I say white film makers because there was a period in black filmic history when the black presence in films was controlled by black film producers and their products were the only exception to the well entrenched Hollywood stereotypes. In 1904, Edison released the first feature film to star blacks, entitled, "Ten Pickaninnies." As its name implies this was a beginning in the stereotype of the black image and featured black children clowning while the silent film credits referred to them as 'coons' . Thus with the idiotic frivolity of black children on the screen, in roles that whites created to reinforce and solidify their racist mentalities, we can see the beginnings of what was soon to become a national sickness. One of the earliest evidences of recorded filmic psychological conditioning was the divisiveness in a 1913 film entitled, "The Octoroon." Like several others made during this period, white attitudes on the racist superiority of fair skin and its advantages played against the curse of those who were not so endowed. Themes abounded about the unfortunate outcome of those (usually women) whose lives could have been infinitely better had it not been for that single drop of black blood. At this point what had only been verbalized and written about as well as practiced with respect to the treatment of this nation's black citizens, now become the 'visual image' law of the land, setting family members against one another, and creating one of this country's most entrenched and rigidly enforced psychological and physical caste systems, the remnants of which still serve to divide and classify the black community. From this point on, the film industry' s ethic of 'white is right' syndrome would dominate the role's allotted to black actresses and, unfortunately, would extend into the works of the soon-to-come black filmmakers who attempted to alter the course of the already crippled black image on film. In addition to the previously mentioned analaga of
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today's Black Superchicks, the second image to be crystalized in the role expectations of black actresses occurred in 1914 when a feature entitled ''Coon Town Suffragettes" made it's debut, in blackface of course, and introduced the obese, sexless, dominant and castrating black female image. Like its relatives, this image would last for over half a century in films and continues today in the guise of television comedy programs. By 1914, the film industry was well established and in six years would be a national institution. The majority of the role expectations had been established by 1914 and it was clear that the white majority intended the film medium to express and convey, with unprecedented clarity, their racist ideology and prejudiced mentality that would cripple the black community in search of its own definable image. But if the film medium was to be a propaganda tool in the hands of the naive, it remained for David Wark Griffith in his 1915 classic feature, "Birth of a Nation," to bring into sharp focus the tremendous and frightening power that such a tool could have. Artistically, Griffith's film permanently altered the direction of the film industry because his techniques were novel and effective. But more importantly, the film established once and for all, incontravertible proof that in the eyes of white America, black citizens, though no longer manacled by chains of steel, would continue to be enslaved mentally, socially and economically. The story line is antebellum and described the idylic life that whites had before the civil war. Following the Civil War, the film depicts the freed slaves as savages who riot and plunder in lust for vengence. But the most provocative scenes deal with slaves who are sexually attracted to the white women of the plantations. It is reported by photohistorians that when these scenes were shown, the white audiences would become so incensed that the theatres erupted in pandemonium and riots. Finally at the end, the white men band together and wearing white hoods and sheets they defeat the aggressive, arrogant and sensual ex-slaves. Again it is reported that white audiences were so enraged at the behavior of blacks in the film that when they were beaten
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by the hooded white men, they screamed and clapped in approval to the point that it became dangerous to continue showing the film. Finally after numerous race riots throughout the country and continued protestations by the NAACP and others, it was withdrawn from circulation. Bogle, in his book, "Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies & Bucks," attributes the Griffith classic to the development of the infamous 'Black Buck' or stud image. Research by this author would tend to validate that as well as a number of other assertions about the film. Certainly this first filmic display of white America's fantasy about the sexuality of black men fed on white fears and established once and for all the premise that if black men were to be used in films, from then on they would have be used in roles that castrated them. That is exactly what happened and for the next 55 years, the era of idiots, buffoons, clowns, jesters and coons dominated the image of the black male. "Birth of a Nation" also expanded the racist attitude about black women using the color theme. The older, obese sexless women were played as supportative of the white ethic and in fact defended the white owners of the plantation against their recently freed brethren. It is significant that these women were much darker, although most of the roles in the film were played by whites in blackface, while the mulatto character was endowed with a semblance of sexuality. All films subsequently produced would exploit this theme of 'white is right' and not until the seventies would the black leading lady be really black. With the advent of the filmic presentation of color divisiveness, the blueprint for white America's motion picture version of the black experience was now complete. The next 50 years would see the blueprint moved from the drafting boards to the construction stage and despite variations in the plan, the structure of the black presence in films would be built to close and exacting
specifications. In the 15 years that followed Griffith's "Birth of a Nation", the film industry experienced several phenomena that directly affected the image of black America and
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helped to establish firmly certain stereotypes that, even to this day, remain with us. The first of these was the elimination of the blackface tradition that this author prefers to label as ethnic substitution. The tradition began during slavery when blacks were forbidden to appear before whites as entertainers. With emancipation, blacks then entered the field of commercial entertainment but because the precedent of whites in blackface (burnt cork) had been established by white entertainers, blacks themselves were required to do the same, especially if they appeared before white audiences. Ironically, Griffith's "Birth of a Nation," despite it's blatently racist theme, opened Pandora's box. The film used whites in black face for the key roles and subsequently drew so much objection from the black community that Hollywood studios began opening the door for more genuine black roles. Despite this liberal concession the use of blackface in films might have continued had it not been for the development of sound in 1927. The key film was entitled, "The Jazz Singer," it staffed a white entertainer, Al Jolson, in blackface. While the film was critically acclaimed, major studios realized that while blackface worked on occasion, nothing could ever match the mythical inherent talents of black America and its music. Thus the black image in films was thrust into another dimension, ironically enough, by the myth that music and rhythm were an inherited characteristic and could not be duplicated by whites in talkie films-not even in blackface! The second entity to develop during this period was the antecedont to the so-called Hollywood musical. An all black musical entitled, "Hearts of Dixie" was the first allblack talkie to be released in 1929. Written, directed and produced by whites, the film relied heavily upon the usage of the established stereotypes of the black image. The The only singular achievement and the perimeter with which we must judge the critical performance of its cast, was the tremendous impact their musical numbers had on the audience. No doubt this is one area where they were allowed the most latitutde and least in-
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terference, culminating in an exuberant performance that was to serve as the template for all future musicals both black and white. Another all black musical appeared in the same year entitled, "Hallelujuh." Not indistinguishible from "Hearts of Dixie" in its use of stereotypes, this film is historically significant because the lead female role was the prototype of the present decade's Coffy, Sheba Baby and Foxy Brown. Forty five years ago, "Hallelujah" introduced the image of black women as sensual and immoral sex-animals, thus crystalizing the white fantasy about black sexuality. As with Hearts of Dixie and other films with the black presence, we must judge them by the circumstances, the times and the options. It is truly a credit to the actors and actresses themselves that the demeaning and debased characters they were forced to play out before the world, were done with such ingenuity and talent that many of the images lived. Though blatantely offensive and racist we must realize that while they were puppets on a string, they managed to devise a few moves of which the puppeteer was not aware. Although bound to the rigid stereotype upon which their employment depended, the characters lived and breathed and moved within that stereotype so that if one now reviews many of the old films with the black presence as did this author, critical eyes will allow you to see beyond the white dictated roles and stereotypes to visualize the magnificence of the black talent that must have ached for full expression without restriction. A third and most significant phase that occurred during this 15 year interval was the development of a thriving and legitimate black film colony. There is no comparison between the scattered and badly splintered group of black film stars of today and the small but cohesive groups of black film repertory companies that flowered during this era. The chief difference between them is that black film stars of today, while admittedly gifted with talent, have no viable production companies, theatres or distribution organizations. Oddly enough, between 1915 and 1930, the number of black financed, black produced and black exhibited films
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numbered in excess of 75. Today there are less than 10, only one or two of which remain viable. During this period, black producers attempted to bring a different quality of black life to the screen. Some were successful and some not. It is important to understand the circumstances under which this brief but effective film renaissance occurred. The country was still smarting from the wounds of the Civil War. Segregation and racist oppression were overt and direct. The country was involved in a war that changed the migration of hundreds of thousands of blacks to the cities of industry. Out of a need to survive, the black community effectively developed and utilized its survival mechanisms of church, music and cohesion among others. The white film industry, while still developing, was not yet in a position to monopolize the field because it was still new. Not until the advent of the talkies in 1927 did Hollywood then exert a stranglehold of the business of movie making, the cost of which virtually eliminated the black filmmakers. There are too many names to expand on the products of each, but there are threads of consistency amongst all of them that deserve attention. In 1914, the first film to feature a black male in the lead was entitled, Darktown Jubilee. Its showing caused a riot because whites refused to see black men in any role but demeaning. Thus the film was removed from circulation and all but forgotten. It's star, the comedian Bert Williams, seldom appeared in films after that. Following the release of Griffith's Birth of a Nation, many black film makers attempted to counter the negative image it created and numerous films began to find their way into the ghetto film houses. The list is too long to relate but some that reflect the thinking of their producers in their quest of an image for black America were, The Burden of Race, Scar of Shame, Trooper K, Ten Nights in a Barroom, and God's Stepchildren. Significant in this brief period of black film history is that these productions provided many prominent theatrical personalities the chance to advance their careers and demonstrate their unique abilities. Paul Robeson began his film career in a
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black produced film. These films had two major shortcomings. First, they were almost always undercapitalized as reflected in the poor quality that was consistently present. Secondly, as Bogle astutely points out in his book, the producers themselves, though desperate in their attempt to find an image that was a positive reflection of the black experience, found themselves caught up in the same stereotypes as the white filmmakers. When one reviews these films now, with social and psychological enlightenment, the shortcomings are dramatically obvious. But these few men made an attempt at change with what little they knew and with even less to work with. A predominant theme played out during this period had to do with the problems of skin color. Many of the black produced films of that day copied the themes of the white film industry and thus fell prey to the myth that if you can get close enough in appearance to look white, you will be accepted without prejudice or discrimination. There were many black producers during this period. Noble Johnson, Leigh Whipper, Buddy Holman, Robert Levy, Emmett Scott and William Alexander, to name a few. But no one can talk about black film history without mentioning the charismatic Oscar Micheaux, generally conceded to be the dean of black film makers. Micheaux began making films in 1919 and despite financial problems, flu epidemics, the depression and white competitors, was able to continue doing so up to 1948. Of all the black produced films of that era, his were by far the best. Still his products were technically inferior to the established white film industry. It is a tribute to his aggressive ingenuity that he was able to finance films during the depression era and still maintain complete control over the production, story line, distribution and exhibition, a feat not yet duplicated by any other black film maker before or since. In addition to the previously mentioned shortcomings that plagued black film makers, that of technical difficulties due to finances, and a preoccupation with trying to convey the "white is right' theme, Micheaux was often criticized for a third fault-that of cen-
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tering his films around the life of middle class blacks who no longer lived in the ghettos. He felt that the black community should be given something to aspire toward instead of accepting the life of perpetual poverty and inadequate living conditions. Research done by this author supports the middle class as being his main focus of character development and story line but the criticism is not valid. In 1924, a white film producer, Roy Cohen began producing black films that depicted the incompetence of black professionals such as doctors, lawyers etc. This same theme was to emerge in later years in the form of Amos 'n' Andy, the series which depicted black professionals as stupid and ignorant. With that fact as a reference point, Micheaux's films about the black professional, as something to model after and work for, hardly justifies criticism. Micheaux died in 1951 but in this author's opinion, his motivation, tenacity and his legacy bequeathed on behalf of the black image in film history, can be seen in men like Melvin Van Peebles, Horace Jackson, Berry Gordy and a host of other creative film makers. As the 20's came to a close, we saw the "Our Gang' comedy films become "The Little Rascals' as the silent era gave way to the talkies. In this respect, white film makers attempted to deal with prejudice by the subtleties of denial hidden by children's antics which is to portray the fact that racial differences can be transcended and ignored in such a modality. But, if the 20's established the templates and the dies for the stereotypes of the black image, the 30's and 40's were the castings. For the next 20 years, the image of black America would be in its film heyday and move from the sublime to the ridiculous. With the exception of Oscar Micheaux, the black film makers were gone and all films about the black experience were now produced and controlled by whites. Undoubtedly the black actor whose name is most often associated with this era in films is Stepin Fetchit. There were a host of others whose roles were just as demeaning and just as offensive. But Fetchit was both the pioneer and the symbol in an era of economic
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downturn and demoralized spirits. He appeared at a time when the country needed something to give them hope, something to laugh at. That Fetchit had talent, is not debatable, for it is generally conceded that he brought to his characters an element of individuality that was beyond the request or expectations of both audience and producer. As does Bogle, James Murray in his book, 'To find an Image,' attributes much of his success on screen to his life style and flamboyant behavior off screen, which did much to reinforce the image he portrayed. Before he slipped into obscurity, Fetchit had appeared in more than 20 films as the forever-introuble village clown, the buffoon who knew his place in the white man's society. Were it not for black filmmakers like Micheaux, the history of the black image in films might have been entirely stereotypic. Anderson's performance in 'Cabin in the Sky' has to be rated as one of his finest and gave a clue to talent that in all likelihood would remain stifled under the control of the white puppeteer. Another image was being solidified by such actors as Clarence Muse and Bill (Bojangles) Robinson. They, along with many others, played the role of the passive, castrated black man who offers no threat to white society. Though immensely talented, they seldom were given the chance to expose that talent in any form other than the stereotype. 'Bojangles' Robinson is given credit for his performance in the film, 'The Littlest Rebel', opposite the child star Shirley Temple. Muse, on the other hand, seemed detached in his performances and although playing the role of the passive black male, he seemed to radiate a sense of resistance and subtle dignity that transcended the manifest humiliation the role called for. The film, 'Broken Strings,' has to be considered one of his best portrayals and must be credited with the fact that he wrote the script, as he had done with previous films. Rex Ingram has to be considered one of the great black actors of this period. His performance in the film, 'Green Pastures', drew critical acclaim. The roles he played
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were even more detached than those of Clarence Muse and gave a picture of a black man who was free within his own confines, regardless of the restrictions placed upon him. Paul Robeson's place in black film history was assured the day he was born. Indeed, this former athlete, scholar, concert singer and actor has to be considered one of the most influential black performers ever seen on the screen. Outspoken, critical and self determined, he portrayed the black man as a symbol of dignity and self respect during an era when it was not fashionable, indeed, possible to do so. As a result, this combination eventually led to his elimination from the American theatre. On many occasions he played roles that still depicted the status quo, but his manner and stature somehow transcended the realities. Robeson came to films in 1924 when he appeared in Oscar Micheaux's, 'Body and Soul'. His political statements eventually overshadowed his movie performances and he made his last film in 1942. Most critics and photohistorians agree that the film which showed Robeson at his best was 'Emperor Jones,' made in 1933. Many of his subsequent movies were made in Europe but they never quite measured up to the tremendous image and strength he portrayed in 'Emperor Jones'. If the stereotype of black men was solidified as castrated, passive and powerless by films in the 30's, so was the image of black women maligned. Louise Beavers, Ethel Waters and Hattie McDaniel were viciously used by the white film industry to establish a role for black women that unfortunately, still remains prominent today. Butterfly McQueen must be mentioned here also, for even though her image was different, she was still used by the film industry to solidify the image of black women as caricatures that lacked sexuality, were aggressive and at the appropriate time, hinted at insolence. 'Imitation of Life,' starring Louise Beavers in her finest performance has to rank as a classic. Despite the implications and the inherent denial of her status portrayed by the role, her acting drew critical raves and demonstrated that unique ability of black actors and actresses that allowed them to move
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within the framework of the stereotype. 'Gone with the Wind' gave Hattie McDaniel her best role and though it was a subservient one, as with the others, she managed to transcend the stereotype and lend a sense of creativity and individuality to a role that left little to be manipulated. The big tragedy, among many others, was the complete denial that the maids, servants and washerwomen had families themselves. Somehow the black image in terms of family never found its way onto the screen. Another ploy used by the film industry during that decade was the reinforcement of the negative stereotypes by playing one black actor or actress against each other to highlight some particular negative aspect about the other. For example, playing 'Bojangles' Robinson against Willie Best in 'Littlest Rebel'. This mechanism of racist manipulation of the puppets proved effective to the point that studios could predict the audience reaction to certain scenes. Films like 'Gone with the Wind', 'Green Pastures', 'Cabin in the Sky', 'Imitation of Life' and a host of others during the 30's firmly established the relationship of black to white; and on film there was no mistaking which color had the upper hand. Black religious beliefs were severely stereotyped in the all-black films, 'Green Pastures', 'Cabin in the Sky' and others as mysticism, magic and superstition were spoofed. This only added to the already existing negative stereotype that films had created and served to reinforce the feeling that black people were not to be taken seriously unless in their places as happy-go-lucky lacky's to the white structure. With the image of the black experience shattered and distorted, religious beliefs stigmatized and ridiculed, blacks in films continued to display the uniqueness of their talent, each in his or her own way, each for his or her own reason. But a change had to come and World War II served as the impetus, although at the time, it went unrecognized. With America deeply embroiled in war, the population longed to be entertained. The black presence in films during the 40's was a diverse and uneven experience. The psychological cycle had come full tilt and the indus-
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try recognized that theatre going audiences wanted light hearted entertainment on the screen, thus returned the musicals. Coming at the time it did, the 40's provided American film audiences a brief but comprehensive look at black entertainment at its best. There are some themes that emerged, leaving a permanent impression during this period in black cinema. More than any other decade, the 40's featured musicians and entertainers. 'Cabin in the Sky' has to be considered one of the premier films of the decade; with a long list of prominent stars from the past and a host of newcomers not the least of whom was Lena Home. The same year, another musical also starring Lena Home, 'Bojangles' Robinson, Fats Waller and a host of others entitled 'Stormy Weather' made its appearance on film. The roles were safe, allowing the entertainer to be seen as precisely that, an entertainer and nothing more. Although the period was brief and ended just after the War, it gave the opportunity for both white and black America to visualize the talents and strengths of a segment of the black image and unknowingly reinforced the myth that all blacks are born with 'natural rhythm'. Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Ada Brown, the Nicholas Brothers, Dorothy Dandridge, Count Basie, Louis Armstrong, Katherine Dunham, Lester Young, to name a few, were prominent in their screen image during this time. But just as they had quickly come on the scene, the War was over and social and psychological attitudes changed once again. 'Song of the South' represented white Hollywood's true feelings about the black entertainer. The film, a black musical had reduced the black image to nothing more than cartoon characters interspersed between various tales of Uncle Remus. Its message was clear-the way of the antebellum south is the preferred structure of society where everyone knows his place. 'Song of the South' was the last of the musicals and not until 1954 when 'Carmen Jones' established Dorothy Dandridge as the leading black female star of the 50's, would the musical format return. Interestingly enough the cycle has come full tilt again and this author knows of some eight to 12
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black musicals now in production. Ironically they are features about the lives of earlier black entertainers, 'Bojangles' Robinson and Bessie Smith to name two. It remains to be seen whether or not the content of these films will be true to the agony and pain these performers had to endure in their quest for screen performance. But the War had signaled the rumblings of a restructured social order that would reach its peak in the 60's. With the demise of the musicals in the mid-forties, these rumblings were manifested in films that both Bogle and Murray term 'problem pictures'. These films were the first exploitation of white guilt on the part of film makers. For the first time film makers acknowledged that problems between the black and white social order existed. 'Home of the Brave' introduced black actor James Edwards in a penetrating role that attempted to free itself from traditional stereotypes. As an enlisted man in the Army, Edwards plays the part of a soldier who underwent a nervous breakdown while in combat. It is finally revealed that his decompensation was due to racism and not the stress of battle. A usual fairy tale ending was depicted, but it was important as a film because it presented a black man in an entirely new light. Two films followed that year (1949) and both dealt with the so-called problem of those blacks who try to 'pass' in the society. 'Lost Boundaries' was a true story about a black physician and his family who live undetected in a New England village until it is eventually discovered that he is black. It is important to realize that this problem was one that whites fashioned, molded and fitted to meet their needs. But the biggest insult in the film was that ethnic substitution once again reared its head and the actors were played by whites. The studios felt that white audiences could more readily identify with the crisis if the principals were white. The second film, 'Pinky,' also used ethnic substitution by having a white actress play the part of a fair skinned girl who returns to the South and reality from her make-believe world in the North where she has been passing. Ethel Water's role was superbly done
MARCH, 1976
and as her predecessors, she was able to make the stereotype role live within the confines of the restrictions. But the preoccupation of the century, that of color caste systems, imposed by whites, still emphasized the 'white is right' syndrome and how unfortunate it is to have a drop of 'colored' blood! Nevertheless, as a film, it looked realistically at issues heretofore thought impossible on the screen. A number of photohistorians feel that Juano Hernandez's portrayal of an innocent black man accused of killing a white man in 'Intruder in the Dust,' to be the best film of that decade. Its message about the inequality of the justice system and the tremendous acting talents of its lead character had much to recommend it. As with the others, it pictured the black male image in a different light and perhaps hinted at what the next 20 years would bring to the screen. The 1950's expanded the 'new image' of black America in cinema and served as the springboard that would launch the revolution of the 60's. Significant in films of this decade were the actors and actresses that portrayed the image of Black America. Sidney Poitier emerged as the sterile but none-theless black super-star of the 50's. Beginning his career in 1950 as a middle class black physician in 'No Way Out', he rose steadily, walking the thin line that made him acceptable to both white and black audiences. 'Cry, The Beloved Country,' 'BlackBoard Jungle,' 'The Defiant Ones,' 'A Patch of Blue,' 'Edge of the City,' and 'Porgy and Bess' have to rank as classics. Their message for the 50's was that blacks and whites can live together if we only try. The integrationist age had arrived and Poitier was the right man at the right time. The black female superstar who was to emerge in the 50's was Dorothy Dandridge. Having had minimal success in films of the early and mid 40's, her first film of critical acclaim was 'Bright Road'. But not until 1954, with her startling performance in 'Carmen Jones', would she then be elevated to superstar status. Just as Nina Mae McKinney had been established as the black female sex symbol of the 20's, so was Dorothy Dand-
Vol. 68, No. 2
Film Industry
ridge endowed in the 50's. Despite her talent, there were but three films in which she would star of any significance, 'Island in the Sun in 1957, and 'Porgy and Bess' in 1959, in addition to 'Carmen Jones.' Like so many other talented sensual black women who appeared in films of an earlier decade, she fell prey to the 'white is right' syndrome and in keeping with that tradition, it was difficult for white Hollywood to cast her in any but a tragic role. Ultimately her life would end itself at an untimely period when just months later the new militancy would appear on the screen and would have afforded her the opportunity to perform in roles much more in line with her abilities. Ethel Waters must be mentioned as a significant force in black cinema of the 50's. Her roles during the 40's established her as a woman of immense talent. She was acclaimed in 'Pinky' but it is generally agreed that her finest performance came in 1952 when she played the role of the cook, Berenice in 'Member of the Wedding.' She was seen as a symbol of the strong black women, something she was to be later criticized for when the social revolution swept the country. But despite her detractors, credit must be given her for the superb performances. Throughout this decade numerous appearances by black actors and actresses would float across the screen. A few musicals with entertainers would be produced while Hollywood experimented with the black image in countless numbers of films. Only a few actors would endure the 50's to take advantage of the 60's and 70's. One was Harry Belafonte. His first film, 'Bright Road' in 1953, established him as a contender for the screen's first sexualized black male. His demure and cool manner restrained him. In 'Carmen Jones,' he was much the same but in the 1957 hit, 'Island in the Sun,' his image of the unyielding black man seemed to bring a deeper quality to his acting. I would have to agree with Bogle that Belafonte did not really come into his own until the 1972 feature, 'Buck and the Preacher.' I do not necessarily feel that his performance was due to maturity but more to the fact Poitier directed the script and the man with whom there was
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a great deal of mutual respect. The issue of blackness and who should determine that issue can only be brought to the screen by those who have lived the experience and have the talents to transform that experience into a filmic reality. As the 60's approached, the black presence in films would take yet another turn towards distortion that would finally culminate in the reverse stereotyping of the 70's. The transition was subtle but received a great deal of assistance from the changing social conscious and attitudes the country was undergoing. As in previous decades and eras, there are themes that clearly give us the clues to the changes in the black image in American cinema. In a war that would soon split the country, movie going audiences once again longed to whet their appetites with entertaining pieces about the black experience. Such a piece was 'A Raisin in the Sun', successfully transformed from its stage presentation, it served as the spokesman for integration. It is a significant piece of work because of its presentation of the black family, something white film makers had skillfully ignored in the past. Of its cast of prominent actors and actresses, it was the springboard to launch the talented Diana Sands. Ten years later she would turn in an excellent performance in 'Georgia Georgia.' Unfortunately, like Dorothy Dandridge her premature death would prevent her from reaching her true potential that films of the 70's would have offered. There followed a host of films that depicted the black experience in various forms: 'One Potato, Two Potato,' which had an interracial marriage theme; 'Cool World,' about an adolescent black youth's life in Harlem amid gangs, alcohol and crime; 'Black Like Me,' about a white man who darkens his skin and then goes on a journey through the south; 'The Pawnbroker,' about a Jewish pawnbroker in Harlem and the blacks he must deal with to stay alive and in business; and 'The Dutchman,' a film about a black man's fatal experience on a New York subway train. In this film, a clue to the films of the 70's can be seen in his transition from passive black man to militant before his
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death at the hands of a sick white woman. In this author's opinion, the single film that makes its statement about the black experience was the 1964 feature, 'Nothing but a Man.' I think that most photohistorians regard this work as one of the finest pieces of film artistry ever to deal with the black experience. A story about a black man who is a laborer in a small southern town and his wife. Because he is uncompromising, their life is made miserable by the racism of the towns whites. But more significantly, the film brought a warmth and dignified strength to the relationship between a black man and black woman. I'his has yet to be repeated on film. Ivan Dixon's portrayal of the lead character was certainly a clue to the change that was on the horizon. Ossie Davis cannot be overlooked during this period in American cinema. He appeared in such films as 'The Cardinal,' 'The Hill,' 'Slaves,' 'The Scalphunters' and others. He would not come into his own until the 70's when 'Cotton Comes to Harlem' and 'Black Girl' would establish him as a talent behind the camera as well as in front of it. In 1967, 'Hurry Sundown,' with its allstar cast introduced Robert Hooks as an invigorating talent. But more importantly, this story about a post war veteran who returns to the south and engages the forces of racism and bigotry was the first film to openly capture the spirit of the militant 60's. Poitier provided competition, of course, with his excellent performances in, 'Lillies of the Field,' "A Patch of Blue,' 'To Sir with Love,' 'The Slender Thread,' 'In the Heat of the Night,' 'For Love of Ivy' and the integrationist most absurd film of the 60's, 'Guess Who's Coming to Dinner.' But the tide had clearly changed, perhaps more rapidly than the integrationists had anticipated and Poitier was quickly switched to the tide as he appeared in, 'The Lost Man,' in 1969. 'The Learning Tree,' 'Uptight,' and 'Putney Swope' clearly put the handwriting on the wall and the 70's removed it from the wall and put it on the screen. If Robert Hooks, Ivan Dixon and other black actors and actresses of the mid 60's put a hole in the dike, Jim Brown must be cred-
MARCH, 1976
ited with splintering the dike into a million pieces. Bogle and Murray acknowledge his impact in the history of black cinema. Although Woody Strode was the first athlete to make the transition from sports to films, his timing was unimportant. But Jim Brown emerged on the screen in the midst of political and psychological turmoil and it must be conceded that he, more than any other black actor or actress of the 60's crystallized the militant mood of the country and fused all previous images of black men into a single overpowering entity that would dominate the screen in the 70's. In the film, '100 Rifles,' the interracial theme was highly exploited and Hollywood finally acknowledged the sensual black male as an image they could no longer contain. Although this image would be severely criticized by the black community, it must be remembered that white Hollywood emasculated and castrated the black male image from the first day the black experience was placed on film. Ironically the image they sought so desperately to keep out of films during the formative years of American cinema, proved to be the one image they could exploit more ruthlessly in films about the black experience in the 70's. In summation, I have tried to point out critical aspects of the development and portrayal of the black experience on film. The history is long and rich and colorful. The demeaning roles, the humiliating stereotypes, the offensive gestures and sexless, powerless images of black men and women that paraded before movie audiences for more than half a century were the creations of white society and in particular white-controlled Hollywood. The actors and actresses themselves were nothing more than puppets on a string at a time, in a country when there were and still are, few options available to the black community. While I do not condone the actions of these actors and actresses, the pain and discomfort they experienced at the hands of an industry that offered them crumbs, transcends any criticism. For those who would be harsh on the individuals and their portrayals it must be remembered that they were conditioned to be(Concluded on page 147)
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Diabetes
Vol. 68, No. 2
10. MIKAMI, S. I. and K. ONO. Glucagon Deficiency Induced by Extirpation of Alpha Islets of the Fowl Pancreas. Endocrinology, 71:464, 1962. 11. GUAL, C. and A. KASTIN, and A. V. SCHALLY. Clinical Experience with Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones. Recent Progress Horm. Res., 28:242, 1972. 12. BRAZEAU, P. and W. VALE, R. BURGUS, N. LING, M. BUTCHER, J. RIVIER, and R. GUILLEMIN. Hypothalamic Polypeptide that Inhibits the Secretion of Immunoreactive Growth Hormone. Science, 179:77, 1973. 13. GERICH, J. E. and R. LOVINGER, G. M. GRODSKY. Inhibition of Glucagon and Insulin Release from the In Vitro Perfused Rat Pancreas by Somatostatin. Program of the 56th. Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society, 1974, p. 190. 14. GERICH, J. E. and M. LORENZI, V. SCHNEIDER, J. H. KARAM, J. RIVIER, and
R. GUILLEMIN. Effects of Somatostatin on Plasma Glucose and Glucagon Levels in Human Diabetes Mellitus. N. Eng. J. Med., 291:544, 1974. 15. DUBOIS, M. P. Immunoreactive Somatostatin is Present in Discrete Cells of the Endocrine Pancreas. Proceedings Nat'l Acad. Sci. U.S., 1340, 1975. 16. LILLEHEI, R. C. and R. L. SIMMONS, J. S. NAJARIAN, R. WEIL, H. Ucheida, J. 0. Riuz, and F. C. GOETZ. Pancreaticoduodenal Transplantation: Experimental and clinical experience. Ann. Surg., 172:405, 1970. 17. NAJARIAN, J. S., C. M. KfELLSTRAND, R. L. SIMMONS, T. J. BUSCHMEIER, B. V. HARTIZSCH, and F. C. GOETY. Renal Transplantation for Diabetic Glomerulosclerosis. Ann. Surg., 174:471, 1973.
(Hartman, from page 103.)
(Jefferson, from page 144.)
LITERATURE CITED
lieve that what they were doing was right and acceptable just as we were conditioned to watch and laugh. It is a tribute to the unique abilities of these men and women who were able, despite the roles they were required to play, to transcend the stereotype and make them live as individuals within the roles. If you, as did this author, spend days and nights on end reviewing the past filmic works of these artists, you can clearly see the tremendous talent that was wasted. Yet beyond that waste they were able to manipulate the strings of the puppeteer without his knowing it. They have left black America a legacy of racism on film, not by their own doing, but as tools of a racist society. How wonderful it would be to see the puppets cut the strings and allow their talent to expand and mushroom to its full glorious expanse. Perhaps their progeny will develop the ability to cut the strings.
1. GELDER, M. G. and F. GRIFFITHEDWARDS. Double-blind Controlled Trial of Metronidazole in Alcoholic Patients. Paper read at 13th Congress of International Institute for Treatment of Alcoholism, Zagreb, 1967. 2. FRIEDLAND, P. and J. MARTIN-SEMER, M. VAISBERG and A. GREENBERG. The Use of Metronidazole in the Treatment of Alcoholism-A Pilot Study. Am. J. Psych., 123:722, 1966. 3. LEHMANN, H. E. and T. A. BAN and E. NALTCHAYAN. Metronidazole in the Treatment of the Alcoholic. Psychiat. & Neurol., 152: p. 395, 1966. 4. LEHMANN, H.E. and T.A. BAN. Chemical Reduction of the Compulsion to Drink with Metronidazole: A New Treatment Modality in the Therapeutic Program of the Alcoholic. Cur. Thera. Res., 9:419, 1967. 5. VAN PELT, S. J. Alcoholics Limited and Hypnosis. Brit. J. Med. Hypnos., 9:2, 1958. 6. BRYAN, W. J., Jr. The Treatment of Alcoholism. J. Am. Inst. Hypno., 2:1, 1961. 7. LEMERE, F. Psychotherapy of Alcoholism. J.A.M.A., 171:106, 1959. 8. KROGER, W. S. The Conditioned Reflex Treatment of Alcoholism. J. A.M.A., 120:714, 1952. 9. WOLBERG, L. Medical Hypnosis, Vol. I. Grune and Stratton, New York, 1948. 10. MILLER, M. M. Treatment of Chronic Alcoholism by Hypnotic Aversion. J.A.M.A., 171:164, 1959.
81st Annual Convention
National Medical Association Nashville, Tennessee August 8-12, 1976
