European Heart Journal (1992) 13 {Supplement H), 10-12
The European aeronautical environment \
R. AUFFRET AND M-P. CHARETTEUR
v
Aeroports de Paris, Orly, France KEY WORDS: Aircrew licensing, aviation, Europe. Introduction
Passenger transportation by air
In 1990, 1 15 billion passengers (excluding the CIS, the former USSR) were carried in civilian aircraft, the billion passenger mark having been reached for the first time in 1987. In 1975 this figure was 500 million, an increase of 100% over a 12 year period. The importance of the United States of America in aviation is illustrated by the fact that nearly half of all passengers carried worldwide passed through the 20 largest airports in the United States. The only European airports to figure amongst the top 10 in terms of passenger volume are London (approximately 65 million passengers/ year) and Paris (approximately 47 million passengers/ year). For Europe in spite of its population (approximately 500 million) has only about 20% of the world airline passenger traffic. The most spectacular growth in air transport in recent years has been in Asia (mainly in the South East part of that continent) with an average annual growth rate of over 10% over the past 5 years. The growth in European traffic over the same period has been 5% per annum. If the possibility of a major economic downturn or other serious international event is excluded then it has been forecast that passenger traffic is likely to pass the 2 billion mark a year by the year 2000. The aeronautical industry
Civil aviation worldwide is a vast undertaking, dominated by the United States of America. Almost 90% of the world's passenger airliners have been manufactured there. By contrast Airbus, the European consortium, has grown progressively and its aircraft orders now account for 35% of all ordered in the world market for 100-seater plus Correspondence. R.Auffret.ChefduDeparternent Medical, Aeroportsde Paris, Oily Sud 103,94396 Orly Aerogare Cedex, France. OI95-668X/92/OH0010 + 03 JO8.00/0
The airlines
In terms of size, the United States carriers are again dominant. All the major United States airline fleets, American Airlines, Delta, United Airlines, US Air and North West have more than 400-500 aircraft. The number of passengers carried each year extends from 45 million (North West) to 80 million (American). Europe's three leading carriers, British Airways, Air France and Lufthansa have fleets with a maximum of 200 aeroplanes and at most 30 million passengers each a year. The four leading United States airlines thus operate 2000 aircraft or double that of the total fleet of the 21 Association of European Airlines (AEA)-member airlines. The number of daily flights operated over the North Atlantic sector accounts for more than 20% of the world's traffic in terms of passenger kilometres. This is an example of intense competition as a result of which the civilian aeronautical scene is in evolution. Following deregulation in the United States of America, airlines once considered viable such as Braniff have gone into liquidation and several others are regarded as potential candidates. Conversely, on the other side of the world, a dozen Asian airlines, JAL, Cathay Pacific, Thai Airways, Garuda and Singapore Airlines can now be counted amongst the major carriers. Singapore Airlines has the youngest fleet in the world and it has enjoyed a yearly growth rate of 10% over the past 10 years. Its profitability is 2-3 times higher than average and its overheads are 30-40% lower than its European counterparts. These are major competitors at a time when too many European airlines have weaknesses, have not restructured or have not joined forces to offset © 1992 The European Society of Cardiology
Downloaded from http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Florida Atlantic University on March 21, 2016
Passenger air transportation is in many parts of the world one of the safest means available on a kilometre per kilometre basis. This involves a high level of international cooperation and high standards of design, construction, maintenance and operation of aircraft as well as of training and certification of aircrew. This also includes their medical certification. As a background to the ongoing review of personnel licensing standards in Europe it is helpful to examine achievements so far.
aircraft (as against 16% in 1980). In 1989 and 1990 Boeing delivered 400 aircraft each year while Airbus delivered 100 each year. Other United States and European manufacturers have also made deliveries. It should not be forgotten that today Boeing is still the only manufacturer to produce an aircraft with a seating capacity in excess of 400 places (Boeing 747). The world civil airline fleet, which at present numbers 7500 aircraft, is expected to expand to 11 000 by the year 2000. With 180 aircraft ordered since 1986, North West is Airbus's best customer to date. Among the Airbus best sellers are the A320 (an advanced design twinjet) and the A340 thefirstfour-engined longhaul aircraft of the Airbus family which made its maiden flight from Toulouse in October 1991.
The European aeronautical en vironmen t 11
European considerations
European Civil Aviation Commission (ECAC)
All the European countries are required to apply standards of medical fitness by virtue of their treaty obligations to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). This organization, which has 164 member countries which are signatories to the Chicago Convention, lays down basic standards for medical fitness as well as other aspects of personnel licensing. Europe is endeavouring to harmonize licensing and whereas initially this was restricted to the European Economic Community (EEC) and a few other European countries, this has now been widened. It is intended to establish a common European licence for flight crew and a common medical standard. The First European Workshop in Aviation Cardiology represents part of the development of this process.
The European Civil Aviation Commission consists of 25 signatory nations (as of October 1991). These include the European Economic Countries (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom), together with Austria, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Cyprus, Malta, Monaco, Turkey and most recently Poland and Hungary. The Commission, a sister organization of ICAO, has been a forum for economic and technical debate between its European partners since 1955. A working group to propose standard practices in the field of flight crew licensing (FCL) was created in 1987. It is divided into four sub-groups.
Aircrew and medical examinations
The European community At the end of 1989, the Commission of the European Economic Community (EEC) proposed a directive relating to the mutual recognition of licences for aviation personnel. Initially this project should have been presented to the Council of Ministers for adoption during the Summer of 1990 but it was not ready in time. This delay was due in part to an initial misconception in relation to the technical problems involved with regard to the issuance of a licence and its direct influence on operational safety. The Commission's initial analysis had concluded that the application of the common ICAO standard by the member states as a whole was sufficient. The ICAO International Standards and Recommended Practices (ISARP) are defined in general terms from which most countries have developed their own regulations. This has resulted in significant European and global variations in interpretations. Even if each individual national initiative had led to a comparable standard of safety (difficult to test given the fortunately low level of aircraft accidents), moulding of technical aspects needed to be examined closely before passing into law.
The private sub-group To prepare the recognition and standardization of private pilot licences. It has already prepared an ECAC recommendation concerning the mutual recognition of private pilot licences in compliance with ICAO. France has put this recommendation into application with regard to EEC pilots. For example, an English pilot holding an English private pilot's licence in conformity with ICAO is now allowed to fly over French territory, in a French registered aircraft. The professional sub-group To prepare standard practices for professional licences. These practices are to cover the conditions of access (age, experience), medical aptitude, training, examination and constraints. This sub-group has identified two levels of licensing in compliance with ICAO for the future European system. For public transport operations the PP (professional pilot) licence would allow access to the co-pilot function and the PL (airline pilot) licence access to the pilot in command function. Additional specific qualifications (experience and training) based on the type of aircraft involved, would be required of co-pilots to allow them to
Downloaded from http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Florida Atlantic University on March 21, 2016
The air transport sector accounts for 160000 pilots worldwide"1 and there are about 10-1-2 million private pilots. This is not a large number when compared with vehicle or train drivers, but it represents a huge investment in training from the airline point of view. All of these pilots undergo a regular medical review to ensure their physical and mental fitness to enable them to carry out their functions on board an aircraft in all circumstances as well as in rescue or other exceptional situations. This medical fitness is an essential part of air safety.
This project of harmonization of personnel licensing having been reviewed by the Commission includes the following main characteristics: (1) limitation to licences for technical flight personnel (pilots and flight engineers), a category for which significant technical documentation already existed. A study of other professional categories is to be conducted later; (2) standard practices for the issuance of licences to be established by 1992. The application of these standard practices will permit mutual acceptance of licences; (3) the need for flight personnel already holding licences from individual national agencies to be accepted by other European countries by means of temporary measures; (4) in the event of differences between states, the need for complementary revision of standards. This is a European Community practice. These issues are currently being pursued (1992) in Brussels within the Transport Group of the Economic Community. Developments are to be expected.
deregulation and the economic consequences of such crises that continue to confront the world today. Airline profits dropped sharply as a result of the 1991 Gulf War and a reduction in the number of passengers carried still prevails.
12 R. Auffret andM-P. Charetteur
The 'examination questions' sub-group To set up a data bank of multiple choice questions, this technique forming the standard basis for technical examinations. This approach should warrant a standard level of examination. The 'medical standards' sub-group To draw up a common medical fitness standard. In practice this group appointed a series of specialist drafting groups. For example, in cardiology, the United Kingdom took the chair. Other technical standarization processes
The Joint Airworthiness Authority (JAA) now includes 17 countries (the 12 EEC nations as well as Switzerland, Austria, Finland, Norway and Sweden) which have joined to define common technical standards and procedures in the fields of certification, maintenance and operation of aircraft. These proceedings will shortly receive official EEC recognition. Some of this work, devoted to aircraft
utilization, concerns the composition and competence of flight crew members and is thus complimentary to the work of the licensing sub-groups. The common requirements determined by the JAA will guarantee that standard licence holders are employed under similar technical conditions. The work of JAA in this field should be finalized by 1993. Perspectives
The harmonization process in aviation is well under way. The heavy investment required might be seen to be threatening the different national systems involved. It is therefore essential that the process is carried out in a fair and realistic manner. The main objective is to achieve and maintain levels of operational safety through the new system at least equal to that achieved today. One of the fundamental objectives is that these common standards should cover all aspects of the aviation environment. From this point of view it is unrealistic to rely on examination without taking training into account or not to employ a coherent system in terms of control or sanction if required. Safety is a global matter and European standardization must be seen in the same light. Conclusion
The process of elaboration of a common European licence has now been launched. Much work remains to be done to harmonize the sometimes differing approaches to standards in all aspects of aircrew certification across Europe. It is likely that several years will be needed to fulfil the task. References [1] ICAO Annual Digest of Statistics 1990. International Civil Aviation Organization; Montreal. 1991. [2] Personnel licensing. International Standards and Recommended Practices. Annex 1 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation Medicine. International Civil Aviation Organization; Montreal. 1987.
Downloaded from http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Florida Atlantic University on March 21, 2016
acquire the experience needed to fly the most sophisticated aircraft. The conditions of access in terms of age and experience will be similar to those of ICAO. Discussions have already started on the subject of training. This is an issue which will have an effect on the educational systems in each country, on the training schools involved when already a heavy investment has been made. Also under consideration is the qualifications needed by the instructors. The sub-group plans to identify two training aspects, one using an integrated approach (overall training courses, ab initio) and the other a progressive and modular approach enabling the insertion of flight crews coming from different backgrounds (clubs, the military, and so forth). Theoretical test programmes have been established for the PL examination which have been considered acceptable by the FCL group as a whole. Other examination programmes are in the course of elaboration.
The European aeronautical environment \
R. AUFFRET AND M-P. CHARETTEUR
v
Aeroports de Paris, Orly, France KEY WORDS: Aircrew licensing, aviation, Europe. Introduction
Passenger transportation by air
In 1990, 1 15 billion passengers (excluding the CIS, the former USSR) were carried in civilian aircraft, the billion passenger mark having been reached for the first time in 1987. In 1975 this figure was 500 million, an increase of 100% over a 12 year period. The importance of the United States of America in aviation is illustrated by the fact that nearly half of all passengers carried worldwide passed through the 20 largest airports in the United States. The only European airports to figure amongst the top 10 in terms of passenger volume are London (approximately 65 million passengers/ year) and Paris (approximately 47 million passengers/ year). For Europe in spite of its population (approximately 500 million) has only about 20% of the world airline passenger traffic. The most spectacular growth in air transport in recent years has been in Asia (mainly in the South East part of that continent) with an average annual growth rate of over 10% over the past 5 years. The growth in European traffic over the same period has been 5% per annum. If the possibility of a major economic downturn or other serious international event is excluded then it has been forecast that passenger traffic is likely to pass the 2 billion mark a year by the year 2000. The aeronautical industry
Civil aviation worldwide is a vast undertaking, dominated by the United States of America. Almost 90% of the world's passenger airliners have been manufactured there. By contrast Airbus, the European consortium, has grown progressively and its aircraft orders now account for 35% of all ordered in the world market for 100-seater plus Correspondence. R.Auffret.ChefduDeparternent Medical, Aeroportsde Paris, Oily Sud 103,94396 Orly Aerogare Cedex, France. OI95-668X/92/OH0010 + 03 JO8.00/0
The airlines
In terms of size, the United States carriers are again dominant. All the major United States airline fleets, American Airlines, Delta, United Airlines, US Air and North West have more than 400-500 aircraft. The number of passengers carried each year extends from 45 million (North West) to 80 million (American). Europe's three leading carriers, British Airways, Air France and Lufthansa have fleets with a maximum of 200 aeroplanes and at most 30 million passengers each a year. The four leading United States airlines thus operate 2000 aircraft or double that of the total fleet of the 21 Association of European Airlines (AEA)-member airlines. The number of daily flights operated over the North Atlantic sector accounts for more than 20% of the world's traffic in terms of passenger kilometres. This is an example of intense competition as a result of which the civilian aeronautical scene is in evolution. Following deregulation in the United States of America, airlines once considered viable such as Braniff have gone into liquidation and several others are regarded as potential candidates. Conversely, on the other side of the world, a dozen Asian airlines, JAL, Cathay Pacific, Thai Airways, Garuda and Singapore Airlines can now be counted amongst the major carriers. Singapore Airlines has the youngest fleet in the world and it has enjoyed a yearly growth rate of 10% over the past 10 years. Its profitability is 2-3 times higher than average and its overheads are 30-40% lower than its European counterparts. These are major competitors at a time when too many European airlines have weaknesses, have not restructured or have not joined forces to offset © 1992 The European Society of Cardiology
Downloaded from http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Florida Atlantic University on March 21, 2016
Passenger air transportation is in many parts of the world one of the safest means available on a kilometre per kilometre basis. This involves a high level of international cooperation and high standards of design, construction, maintenance and operation of aircraft as well as of training and certification of aircrew. This also includes their medical certification. As a background to the ongoing review of personnel licensing standards in Europe it is helpful to examine achievements so far.
aircraft (as against 16% in 1980). In 1989 and 1990 Boeing delivered 400 aircraft each year while Airbus delivered 100 each year. Other United States and European manufacturers have also made deliveries. It should not be forgotten that today Boeing is still the only manufacturer to produce an aircraft with a seating capacity in excess of 400 places (Boeing 747). The world civil airline fleet, which at present numbers 7500 aircraft, is expected to expand to 11 000 by the year 2000. With 180 aircraft ordered since 1986, North West is Airbus's best customer to date. Among the Airbus best sellers are the A320 (an advanced design twinjet) and the A340 thefirstfour-engined longhaul aircraft of the Airbus family which made its maiden flight from Toulouse in October 1991.
The European aeronautical en vironmen t 11
European considerations
European Civil Aviation Commission (ECAC)
All the European countries are required to apply standards of medical fitness by virtue of their treaty obligations to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). This organization, which has 164 member countries which are signatories to the Chicago Convention, lays down basic standards for medical fitness as well as other aspects of personnel licensing. Europe is endeavouring to harmonize licensing and whereas initially this was restricted to the European Economic Community (EEC) and a few other European countries, this has now been widened. It is intended to establish a common European licence for flight crew and a common medical standard. The First European Workshop in Aviation Cardiology represents part of the development of this process.
The European Civil Aviation Commission consists of 25 signatory nations (as of October 1991). These include the European Economic Countries (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom), together with Austria, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Cyprus, Malta, Monaco, Turkey and most recently Poland and Hungary. The Commission, a sister organization of ICAO, has been a forum for economic and technical debate between its European partners since 1955. A working group to propose standard practices in the field of flight crew licensing (FCL) was created in 1987. It is divided into four sub-groups.
Aircrew and medical examinations
The European community At the end of 1989, the Commission of the European Economic Community (EEC) proposed a directive relating to the mutual recognition of licences for aviation personnel. Initially this project should have been presented to the Council of Ministers for adoption during the Summer of 1990 but it was not ready in time. This delay was due in part to an initial misconception in relation to the technical problems involved with regard to the issuance of a licence and its direct influence on operational safety. The Commission's initial analysis had concluded that the application of the common ICAO standard by the member states as a whole was sufficient. The ICAO International Standards and Recommended Practices (ISARP) are defined in general terms from which most countries have developed their own regulations. This has resulted in significant European and global variations in interpretations. Even if each individual national initiative had led to a comparable standard of safety (difficult to test given the fortunately low level of aircraft accidents), moulding of technical aspects needed to be examined closely before passing into law.
The private sub-group To prepare the recognition and standardization of private pilot licences. It has already prepared an ECAC recommendation concerning the mutual recognition of private pilot licences in compliance with ICAO. France has put this recommendation into application with regard to EEC pilots. For example, an English pilot holding an English private pilot's licence in conformity with ICAO is now allowed to fly over French territory, in a French registered aircraft. The professional sub-group To prepare standard practices for professional licences. These practices are to cover the conditions of access (age, experience), medical aptitude, training, examination and constraints. This sub-group has identified two levels of licensing in compliance with ICAO for the future European system. For public transport operations the PP (professional pilot) licence would allow access to the co-pilot function and the PL (airline pilot) licence access to the pilot in command function. Additional specific qualifications (experience and training) based on the type of aircraft involved, would be required of co-pilots to allow them to
Downloaded from http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Florida Atlantic University on March 21, 2016
The air transport sector accounts for 160000 pilots worldwide"1 and there are about 10-1-2 million private pilots. This is not a large number when compared with vehicle or train drivers, but it represents a huge investment in training from the airline point of view. All of these pilots undergo a regular medical review to ensure their physical and mental fitness to enable them to carry out their functions on board an aircraft in all circumstances as well as in rescue or other exceptional situations. This medical fitness is an essential part of air safety.
This project of harmonization of personnel licensing having been reviewed by the Commission includes the following main characteristics: (1) limitation to licences for technical flight personnel (pilots and flight engineers), a category for which significant technical documentation already existed. A study of other professional categories is to be conducted later; (2) standard practices for the issuance of licences to be established by 1992. The application of these standard practices will permit mutual acceptance of licences; (3) the need for flight personnel already holding licences from individual national agencies to be accepted by other European countries by means of temporary measures; (4) in the event of differences between states, the need for complementary revision of standards. This is a European Community practice. These issues are currently being pursued (1992) in Brussels within the Transport Group of the Economic Community. Developments are to be expected.
deregulation and the economic consequences of such crises that continue to confront the world today. Airline profits dropped sharply as a result of the 1991 Gulf War and a reduction in the number of passengers carried still prevails.
12 R. Auffret andM-P. Charetteur
The 'examination questions' sub-group To set up a data bank of multiple choice questions, this technique forming the standard basis for technical examinations. This approach should warrant a standard level of examination. The 'medical standards' sub-group To draw up a common medical fitness standard. In practice this group appointed a series of specialist drafting groups. For example, in cardiology, the United Kingdom took the chair. Other technical standarization processes
The Joint Airworthiness Authority (JAA) now includes 17 countries (the 12 EEC nations as well as Switzerland, Austria, Finland, Norway and Sweden) which have joined to define common technical standards and procedures in the fields of certification, maintenance and operation of aircraft. These proceedings will shortly receive official EEC recognition. Some of this work, devoted to aircraft
utilization, concerns the composition and competence of flight crew members and is thus complimentary to the work of the licensing sub-groups. The common requirements determined by the JAA will guarantee that standard licence holders are employed under similar technical conditions. The work of JAA in this field should be finalized by 1993. Perspectives
The harmonization process in aviation is well under way. The heavy investment required might be seen to be threatening the different national systems involved. It is therefore essential that the process is carried out in a fair and realistic manner. The main objective is to achieve and maintain levels of operational safety through the new system at least equal to that achieved today. One of the fundamental objectives is that these common standards should cover all aspects of the aviation environment. From this point of view it is unrealistic to rely on examination without taking training into account or not to employ a coherent system in terms of control or sanction if required. Safety is a global matter and European standardization must be seen in the same light. Conclusion
The process of elaboration of a common European licence has now been launched. Much work remains to be done to harmonize the sometimes differing approaches to standards in all aspects of aircrew certification across Europe. It is likely that several years will be needed to fulfil the task. References [1] ICAO Annual Digest of Statistics 1990. International Civil Aviation Organization; Montreal. 1991. [2] Personnel licensing. International Standards and Recommended Practices. Annex 1 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation Medicine. International Civil Aviation Organization; Montreal. 1987.
Downloaded from http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Florida Atlantic University on March 21, 2016
acquire the experience needed to fly the most sophisticated aircraft. The conditions of access in terms of age and experience will be similar to those of ICAO. Discussions have already started on the subject of training. This is an issue which will have an effect on the educational systems in each country, on the training schools involved when already a heavy investment has been made. Also under consideration is the qualifications needed by the instructors. The sub-group plans to identify two training aspects, one using an integrated approach (overall training courses, ab initio) and the other a progressive and modular approach enabling the insertion of flight crews coming from different backgrounds (clubs, the military, and so forth). Theoretical test programmes have been established for the PL examination which have been considered acceptable by the FCL group as a whole. Other examination programmes are in the course of elaboration.
