J Relig Health DOI 10.1007/s10943-015-0173-8 ORIGINAL PAPER
The Impact of Education on Views of Homosexuality in the Senior Clergy of Hidalgo County, Texas John Park1 • Pamela R. Perez2 • Johnny Ramı´rez-Johnson3
Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract This study explores clergy perspectives on homosexuality and mental health. Interviews were conducted with 245 senior clergy of faith-based organizations in Hidalgo County, Texas. Analyses revealed that the less education the individual had, the more likely he or she viewed homosexuals as being more psychologically disturbed than heterosexuals. Clergy also expressed uncertainty in their views and actions regarding referral practices. A need for clergy education on views of homosexuality is documented. Suggestions are made for future research and education. Keywords Clergy education Ministerial training Views on homosexuality Mental health perspectives on homosexuality Hidalgo County, Texas Hispanic clergy Higher education of clergy Clergy and mental health education
Introduction Recently, there have been landmark movements in the legalization of gay marriage, development of gay rights, benefits, and acceptance for people who identify as homosexuals (Adamczyk and Pitt 2009). Change in views on homosexuality has come after decades of great turmoil and schism, both within the religious and political arenas (Kloehn 1999; Lewis 2005; McNeill 1976; Moon 2004; Olson and Cadge 2002; Olson et al. 2006; Schwartz 2011; Olson et al. 2011). While there is no empirical evidence substantiating that homosexuality is a psychological disorder (American Psychological Association 2013; Pan & Johnny Ramı´rez-Johnson [email protected] 1
Department of Psychiatry, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
2
School of Allied Health Professions, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
3
School of Intercultural Studies, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA, USA
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American Health Organization 2012), it had long been regarded as such until the 1970s when homosexuality was finally removed as a psychological disorder by the leading health organizations, including the World Health Organization, American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, National Association of Social Workers, Chinese Society of Psychiatry, and the Royal College of Psychiatrists. While many FBO are also growing more accepting of homosexuality (Boswell 1980; Cadge et al. 2012; Campbell and Monson 2008; Fleischman and Moyer 2009; Peterson and Donnenworth 1998), many clergy are uncertain about their personal beliefs regarding this issue and how they ought to approach it in their professional roles (Anderson 1997; Ammerman 2005; Dillon 1999; Maloney 2001; McNeill 1976; Moon 2004; Olson and Cadge 2002; Yang 1997; Wood 2000). A study by Cadge and Wildeman (2008) documented that seven of ten clergy interviewed expressed uncertainty about homosexuality, either in terms of personal beliefs, actions, or both. Further, studies show that clergy experience significant professional constraints and limitations when dealing with this issue as they must act according to their religious traditions and beliefs as well as take into consideration the general attitude of their FBO (Djupe et al. 2006; Moon 2004; Olson et al. 2006; Olson and Cadge 2002; Whitehead 2013). Clergy and religious leaders as a whole experience diverse encounters where they must deal with issues in which they are not equipped, nor have sufficient training or education. When it comes to those struggling with sexual issues, many feel they are unable to deal effectively with such topics (Turner and Stayton 2014). People within the various faith communities who experience difficulties in regard to their sexuality often turn to their clergy for guidance and support (Olson et al. 2006), yet these same clergy do not possess the knowledge or training to provide adequate help. When it comes to issues related to homosexuality, studies document that a significant proportion of clergy are uncertain or express ambiguity regarding their personal beliefs on such issues and are unsure how they should approach them in their roles as religious leaders (Ramirez-Johnson et al. 2013; Djupe and Neiheisal 2008; Ammerman 2000, 2005; Moon 2004; Wood 2000; Djupe and Gilbert 2009).
Views on Homosexuality and Academic Training of Clergy Clergy are often the first point of contact when it comes to crisis events, relational problems, mental health concerns, and sexual orientation issues, and often play a significant role in providing counseling and therapy, as needed, to their members (Turner and Stayton 2014). In regard to their views on sexual orientation, clergy have to take into consideration their religious organization’s stance (in this study for Christian clergy, for example, their reading of the Bible as understood by their denomination, and for Muslims their reading and interpretation of the Koran) and doctrine which may pose difficulties for those individuals whose views differ from the accepted norms regarding sexual orientation (Djupe and Neiheisal 2008; Djupe et al. 2006; Moon 2004; Olson et al. 2011). In a study by Bowland et al. (2013), the authors documented how gay/lesbian participants affirmed the value of clergy involvement in their lives. Moreover, they stated that pastoral care providers should take an active role in providing guidance in the spiritual journey of those seeking help integrating their identity and spiritual formation. Research shows that education plays a significant role in the development of the belief system of clergy in regards to the topic of sexuality (Turner and Stayton 2014). Turner and
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Stayton (2014) have shown that clergy often lack the training and education on topics of sexuality that results in these leaders being ill-equipped to address the needs of their congregation. Having received adequate education may play a role in clergy possessing more diverse views of sexuality. Thus, it appears that education promotes in clergy functioning as more inclusive religious/spiritual leaders in their community. This may be due to the fact that higher levels of education provide a more scholarly, scientifically based approach to knowledge and instruction and more opportunities for the application of critical thinking. Lacking education may expose clergy to a lack training; thus, it seems plausible that clergy with less education may hold to views of homosexuality that may not reflect society at large. They may have less current, less tolerant views, upholding instead what is acceptable only to their respective FBO traditions. As there is a paucity of studies that examine this topic, this study sought to explore how having received higher levels of education may have impacted clergy views on homosexuality as self-reported in the administered survey questions. The current study is based on a survey conducted with the Hidalgo County, Texas, senior clergy population. Clergy in this paper mainly, though not exclusively, refer to Christian denominational leaders in this sample.
Method Aims and Hypotheses The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between clergy level of education and their views regarding homosexuality. Overall, there appear to be few studies on religion and homosexuality (Anderson 1997; Beuttler 1999; Burgess 1999; Cadge 2002), but even fewer that examine clergy attitudes toward homosexuality (Wellman 1999). Olson and Cadge (2002) note that clergy regularly express indecision as the common theme when it comes to issues dealing with homosexuality. Specifically, this study examined whether level of education (high school, certificate, bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, and doctoral degree) would affect views on homosexuality. The research question was: Will level of education impact clergy views of homosexuality?
Participants The clergy of HCT were actively recruited to participate in this study that was approved by the institutional review board (IRB) of Loma Linda University and of the former University Texas–Pan American (currently known as University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, UTRGV). The research team was comprised of graduate and undergraduate social work students from the College of Health and Human Services, Department of Social Work, UTRGV. By combining available resources, a master list of approximately 301 property owner FBO was compiled from the Assessor’s Office of the Hidalgo County, Texas. Through personal contacts and/or telephone calls, all clergy associated with the aforementioned FBO properties were identified and invited to participate in this project. After the initial contact, face-to-face interviews were conducted. Students from UTRGV who received IRB training performed the face-to-face interviews with clergy members.
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Data were collected from the senior clergy members of the originally listed 301 FBO between January and May 2009. Out of the 301 identified FBO, there were 245 complete interviews with the senior clergy. The participation rate was 81 %, notably high compared with the 60 % participation rate of previous studies (Caldwell et al. 1995; Lincoln and Mamiya 1990). After data cleaning and screening, 231 total participants remained in the dataset for final analyses.
Procedure The clergy of HCT represented mostly Protestant and Catholic FBO and one Muslim congregation. Once the clergy were contacted, the research assistant explained the purpose and procedure of the study. The participant was given a consent form that stated the confidential nature of the information. The process for maintaining the privacy of information was thoroughly explained. Approximately 60–120 min was spent to complete the survey with an average of 90 min. The interviews were conducted, as chosen by the clergy member, primarily at the FBO address of the clergy member. To account for the language diversity in the Rio Grande Valley, the interviewee was given the option to take the survey in English or Spanish.
Design and Measure This study sought to replicate the interview questionnaire used by Williams et al. (1999) in their FBO of New Haven, Connecticut, research study. Additional survey questions were contextualized for HCT, and new questions were added to the original survey. The interview protocol focused on the following information: (a) types of services provided by the FBO; (b) demographic information of clergy and FBO; (c) intervention practices of clergy; (d) beliefs and attitudes about sexual orientation; and (e) MH training and education. It was determined that conducting personal one-on-one interviews using structured survey questions was the best method for data collection. It is noted that the term ‘‘clergy’’ denotes the recognized faith leader of the FBO, even though not all FBO may recognize this title as the appropriate classification.
Statistical Analyses Descriptive Analyses A series of descriptive analyses were conducted to gain a comprehensive picture of the demographic characteristics of the clergy and the MH intervention practices of the clergy in HCT. The average age of clergy was 53.6 years. Thirty-four out of the 245 clergy leaders were female. The majority (over 65 %) identified themselves as Latino/Hispanic. On average, clergy served 10.4 years in their respective FBO. In HCT, the majority of the population (33.5 %) are members of the Roman Catholic Church, though only 16 clergy (6.5 %) oversaw over one-third of the HCT religious population. Less than 20 % had other paid employment. Clergy were asked to report the name of the academic institution where they undertook their education.
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Variables of Interest Clergy Education Thirty (12 %) clergy leaders possessed high school education, 77 clergy leaders 31 %) had certificate only education, 28 (11 %) had bachelor level degrees, 44 (18 %) had master level degrees, 9 (4 %) had doctoral level degrees, and the remaining 57 (23 %) did not provide this information. Clergy were asked whether they thought homosexuals were more psychologically disturbed than heterosexuals. Comparison of the responses by education level is displayed in Table 1. Education was the single factor that showed a significant positive relationship with clergy perceptions about psychological disturbance in homosexuals. A Kruskal–Wallis test was conducted to evaluate the differences between levels of education (high school, certificate, bachelor’s, master’s doctoral levels), and results revealed a significant difference between the groups [H(3) = 11.40, p = .01] with a mean rank of 94.91 for high school, 93.73 for certificate, 95.21 for bachelor’s, 65.08 for master’s, and 75.33 for doctoral level of education. Mann–Whitney U tests were used as a follow-up to this finding. A Bonferroni correction was applied, and so all effects are reported at a .0167 level of significance. It appeared that there was no difference between those with high school level of education and certificate levels of education (U = 983, p [ .0167), bachelor levels (U = 362, p [ .0167), or doctorate level of education (U = 94.5, p [ .0167). There was also no difference between bachelor level and master level (U = 321, p [ .0167) or bachelor and doctorate levels (U = 81, p [ .0167). There was, however, a significant difference between those with high school level of education and master level (U = 362, p = .007), high school and doctoral level of education (U = 951.5, p = .002), and certificate and master’s levels of education (U = 951.5, p = .002). Overall, clergy with more education appeared to report lower levels of agreement that homosexuals were more psychologically disturbed than heterosexuals compared to those with less education. Those with less education were also significantly less likely to make referrals to mental health agencies or professionals X2 (4, N = 167) = 11.89, p = .018. In other words, clergy with more education were more likely to engage in MH referrals than those who received less education (Table 2). These results were similar to those of a study by Williams et al. (1999) in which African-American clergy in New Haven, Connecticut, with less education were less likely to engage in the MH referral process. Furthermore, Thomas (2012) documented how academic education was the strongest positive indicator of collaborative practice with MH Table 1 Homosexuals are more psychologically disturbed than heterosexuals Education level
% Strongly disagree/disagree
% Strongly agree/agree
High school
46
47
Certificate
47
45
BS/BA
42
44
MS/MA
75
16
Doctorate
67
33
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Yes
No
Total
Highest level of education High school
17
10
27
Certificate
32
37
69
BS/BA
14
11
25
MS/MA
29
8
37
Doctorate Total
7
2
9
99
68
167
professionals. Education, it is concluded, plays a significant role in collaborative MH practice as also documented by Pen˜a et al. (2005).
Discussion Overall, most clergy (more than 80 % of those interviewed) seemingly favored a biomedical understanding of mental illness. There were no statistically significant differences between the religious only education (certificate only) and more traditional college education (bachelor, master, doctoral level) groups when it came to attitudes about psychological disorders and their treatment. Still, while the views on mental health at large seemingly indicated that the HCT clergy had a clinically acceptable view of mental health issues, when it came to homosexuality there appeared to be deviation from the medical and social norms of today. Results of our analyses indicated that the HCT clergy seemingly viewed homosexual individuals as having ‘‘more disturbance’’ when compared to the other mental health issues; the difference appeared to be related to level of education and not type of education. We did not, however, operationalize what the term disturbance meant, so it could imply several things, including greater levels of distress, internal turmoil, and, of course, external/environmental conflict they observed the individual experiencing. No current literature on how type of education impacts views of homosexuality and MH referral practices were found. This research contributes to existing knowledge about religion and homosexuality in current society by exploring the perspectives on homosexuality in the context of MH of the respective clergy in various FBO in HCT. This investigation confirmed that education played a significant role in the difficulty clergy have in the understanding of homosexuality. More specifically, more traditional, college level education was statistically documented as making a difference in clergy views of homosexuality when compared to less education or ministerial certification type education only. This study expands upon previous literature by examining the type of education and its corresponding philosophical perspectives that clergy received via their education and examined how type of education seemingly influenced clergy views on homosexuality. The following conclusions are made regarding clergy perspectives on homosexuality: First, the level of education clergy receive plays an important role in how clergy conceptualize sexual identity issues. Clergy who receive higher levels of formal education are exposed to more current medical views and perspectives that may allow them to develop a more comprehensive understanding of homosexuality. Clergy who do not receive more extensive education may receive education that adheres only to more traditional or outdated
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beliefs regarding homosexuality, if any, that could still be associating homosexuality with psychological disturbance only. Second, similar to the conclusions of Cadge et al. (2012), this study may reveal that, overall, clergy are expressing uncertainty regarding their views on homosexuality. It is hypothesized that clergy experience significant dissonance between their professional roles, denominational polity and doctrinal views, and the social mainstream views on homosexuality. It was learned that denominational affiliation per se does not confine the views on homosexuality as a mental disease; the type of education clergy received did seemingly confine their views on the matter, possibly due to a lack of exposure to more scientific, medical, and current psychological perspectives on this issue. The vast majority of clergy reportedly lacked the resources, time, and availability to provide appropriate services to the members of their FBO. However, by having accredited educational experiences or subsequent training, and developing a scientific and medically appropriate knowledge base, clergy will be able to make the necessary adjustments in their views that will translate into appropriate interventions. This study emphasizes the need to address clergy education on the topics of sexuality and sexual identity. It seems that clergy and their FBO denominations have the need to face the conflicting views between the current scientific and social views and norms of homosexuality and the views of their traditions and beliefs. FBO can no longer ignore the tension that exists between the two views. Clergy today need the education and training that can help them articulate the views and perspectives of the different sexual orientations and perspectives that are in a cogent fashion with the current views and understanding of science. Specifically, as documented by Pen˜a et al. (2005), Hispanic ministers in particular face an acute need for better ministerial training if they are to be effective, and also note that ‘‘providing more practical education will help church leaders overcome their own communities’ ambivalence toward higher education’’ (p. 21). Can such ‘‘practical education’’ be provided via workshops? Future research should look into how continuing education dealing with sexual orientation and homosexuality may affect clergy’s views on homosexuality.
References Adamczyk, A., & Pitt, C. (2009). Shaping attitudes about homosexuality: The role of religion and cultural context. Social Science Research, 38, 338–351. American Psychological Association. (2013). Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality. https:// web.archive.org/web/20130808032050. http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation.aspx (archived from the original on August 8, 2013). Retrieved August 10, 2013. American Psychological Association. (2014). Resolution on appropriate affirmative responses to sexual orientation distress and change efforts. http://www.apa.org/about/policy/sexual-orientation.aspx. Retrieved August, 2014. Ammerman, N. T. (2000). A quick question, Hartford Seminary, Hartford Institute for Religion Research. http://hirr.hartsem.edu/research/quick_question18.html. Retrieved August 10, 2013. Ammerman, N. T. (2005). Pillars of faith: American congregations and their partners. Berkeley: University of California Press. Anderson, J. (1997). The lesbian and gay liberation movement in the Presbyterian church (USA), 1974–1996. Journal of Homosexuality, 34, 37–65. Beuttler, F. (1999). Making theology matter: Power, polity, and the theological debate over homosexual ordination in the Presbyterian Church (USA). Review of Religious Research, 41, 239–261. Boswell, J. (1980). Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Bowland, S. E., Foster, K., & Vosler, A. N. (2013). Culturally competent and spiritually sensitive therapy with lesbian and gay Christians. Social Work, 58(4), 321–332.
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J Relig Health Burgess, J. (1999). Framing the homosexuality debate theologically: Lessons from the Presbyterian Church, (USA). Review of Religious Research, 41, 262–274. Cadge, W. (2002). Vital conflicts: The mainline denominations debate homosexuality. In R. Wuthnow & J. H. Evans (Eds.), The quiet hand of God: Faith based activism and the public role of mainline Protestantism. CA: University of California Press. Cadge, W., Girouard, J., Olson, L., & Lylerohr, M. (2012). Uncertainty in clergy’s perspectives on homosexuality: A researcher’s note. Review of Religious Research, 54, 371–387. Cadge, W., & Wildeman, C. (2008). Facilitators and advocates: How mainline protestant clergy respond to homosexuality. Sociological Perspectives, 51, 587–603. Caldwell, C. H., Chatters, L. M., Billingsley, A., & Taylor, R. J. (1995). Church-based support programs for elderly Black adults: Congregational and clergy characteristics. In M. A. Kimble, S. H. McFadden, J. W. Ellor, & J. J. Seeber (Eds.), Handbook on religion, spirituality, and aging (pp. 306–324). MN: Augsburg Press. Campbell, D., & Monson, J. (2008). The religion card: Gay marriage and the 2004 presidential election. Public Opinion Quarterly, 72, 399–419. Dillon, M. (1999). Catholic identity: Balancing reason, faith, and power. New York: Cambridge University Press. Djupe, P., & Gilbert, C. (2009). The political influence of churches. New York: Cambridge University Press. Djupe, P., & Neiheisal, J. (2008). Deliberation on gay rights and homosexuality in churches. Polity, 40, 411–435. Djupe, P., Olson, L., & Gilbert, C. (2006). Whether to adopt statements on homosexuality in two denominations: A research note. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 45(4), 609–621. Fleischman, A., & Moyer, L. (2009). Competing social movements and local political culture: Voting on ballot propositions to ban same-sex marriages in the US States. Social Science Quarterly, 90, 134–149. Kloehn, S. (1999). Protestants face schism on homosexuality. Chicago Tribune, May 3, section 1. Lewis, G. (2005). Same-sex marriage and the 2004 presidential election. Political Science and Politics, 38, 195–199. Lincoln, C. E., & Mamiya, L. H. (1990). The Black church in the African American experience. Durham: Duke University Press. Maloney, H. (2001). Pastoral care and counseling in sexual diversity. New York: The Haworth Pastoral Press. McNeill, J. J. (1976). The church and the homosexual. Kansas City: Sheed Andrews and McMeel Inc. Moon, D. (2004). God, sex, and politics: Homosexuality and everyday theologies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Olson, L., & Cadge, W. (2002). Talking about homosexuality: The views of mainline Protestant clergy. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41(1), 153–167. Olson, L., Cadge, W., & Harrison, J. (2006). Religion and public opinion about same-sex marriage. Social Science Quarterly, 87, 340–360. Olson, L., Djupe, P., & Cadge, W. (2011). Mainline Protestantism and deliberation about homosexuality. In David Rayside & Clyde Wilcox (Eds.), Faith, politics, and sexual diversity in Canada and the United States. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Pan American Health Organization. (2012). ‘Therapies’ to change sexual orientation lack medical justification and threaten health. http://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6803% 3A2012-therapies-change-sexual-orientation-lack-medical-justification-threaten-health&catid=740% 3Anews-press-releases&Itemid=1926&lang=en. Retrieved on 26, May 2012. Pen˜a, M., Hernandez, E., & Mauldin, M. (2005). Hispanic clergy and the task of ministry in urban America. Research reports, 3, Institute for Latino Studies, University of Notre Dame. Peterson, L., & Donnenworth, G. (1998). Religion and declining support for traditional beliefs about gender roles and homosexual rights. Sociology of Religion, 59, 353–371. Ramirez-Johnson, J., Park, J., Wilson, C., Pittman, S., & Diaz, H. (2013). ‘‘Deeply woven roots’’: Health initiatives and community social services of faith-based organizations of the Hidalgo County, Texas. Journal of Religion and Health, 52(4), 1–17. Schwartz, J. (2011). Investigating differences in public support for gay rights issues. Journal of Homosexuality, 57, 748–759. Thomas, M. (2012). The interprofessional collaborative practice: Clergypersons and mental health professionals. Pastoral Psychology, 61, 99–112. Turner, Y., & Stayton, W. (2014). The twenty-first century challenges to sexuality and religion. Journal of Religion and Health, 53, 483–497. Wellman, J. (1999). The debate over homosexual orientation: Subcultural identity theory in American religious organizations. Review of Religious Research, 41, 184–206.
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J Relig Health Whitehead, A. (2013). Religious organizations and homosexuality: The acceptance of gays and lesbians in American congregations. Review of Religious Research, 55, 297–317. Williams, D. R., Griffith, E. H., Young, J. L., Collins, C., & Dodson, J. (1999). Structure and provision of services in Black Churches in New Haven, Connecticut. Cultural Diversity And Mental Health, 5(2), 118–133. Wood, J. (2000). Where the spirit leads: The evolving views of United Methodists on homosexuality. Nashville: Abington Press. Yang, A. (1997). Trends: Attitudes toward homosexuality. Public Opinion Quarterly, 61, 477–507.
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The Impact of Education on Views of Homosexuality in the Senior Clergy of Hidalgo County, Texas John Park1 • Pamela R. Perez2 • Johnny Ramı´rez-Johnson3
Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract This study explores clergy perspectives on homosexuality and mental health. Interviews were conducted with 245 senior clergy of faith-based organizations in Hidalgo County, Texas. Analyses revealed that the less education the individual had, the more likely he or she viewed homosexuals as being more psychologically disturbed than heterosexuals. Clergy also expressed uncertainty in their views and actions regarding referral practices. A need for clergy education on views of homosexuality is documented. Suggestions are made for future research and education. Keywords Clergy education Ministerial training Views on homosexuality Mental health perspectives on homosexuality Hidalgo County, Texas Hispanic clergy Higher education of clergy Clergy and mental health education
Introduction Recently, there have been landmark movements in the legalization of gay marriage, development of gay rights, benefits, and acceptance for people who identify as homosexuals (Adamczyk and Pitt 2009). Change in views on homosexuality has come after decades of great turmoil and schism, both within the religious and political arenas (Kloehn 1999; Lewis 2005; McNeill 1976; Moon 2004; Olson and Cadge 2002; Olson et al. 2006; Schwartz 2011; Olson et al. 2011). While there is no empirical evidence substantiating that homosexuality is a psychological disorder (American Psychological Association 2013; Pan & Johnny Ramı´rez-Johnson [email protected] 1
Department of Psychiatry, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
2
School of Allied Health Professions, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
3
School of Intercultural Studies, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA, USA
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American Health Organization 2012), it had long been regarded as such until the 1970s when homosexuality was finally removed as a psychological disorder by the leading health organizations, including the World Health Organization, American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, National Association of Social Workers, Chinese Society of Psychiatry, and the Royal College of Psychiatrists. While many FBO are also growing more accepting of homosexuality (Boswell 1980; Cadge et al. 2012; Campbell and Monson 2008; Fleischman and Moyer 2009; Peterson and Donnenworth 1998), many clergy are uncertain about their personal beliefs regarding this issue and how they ought to approach it in their professional roles (Anderson 1997; Ammerman 2005; Dillon 1999; Maloney 2001; McNeill 1976; Moon 2004; Olson and Cadge 2002; Yang 1997; Wood 2000). A study by Cadge and Wildeman (2008) documented that seven of ten clergy interviewed expressed uncertainty about homosexuality, either in terms of personal beliefs, actions, or both. Further, studies show that clergy experience significant professional constraints and limitations when dealing with this issue as they must act according to their religious traditions and beliefs as well as take into consideration the general attitude of their FBO (Djupe et al. 2006; Moon 2004; Olson et al. 2006; Olson and Cadge 2002; Whitehead 2013). Clergy and religious leaders as a whole experience diverse encounters where they must deal with issues in which they are not equipped, nor have sufficient training or education. When it comes to those struggling with sexual issues, many feel they are unable to deal effectively with such topics (Turner and Stayton 2014). People within the various faith communities who experience difficulties in regard to their sexuality often turn to their clergy for guidance and support (Olson et al. 2006), yet these same clergy do not possess the knowledge or training to provide adequate help. When it comes to issues related to homosexuality, studies document that a significant proportion of clergy are uncertain or express ambiguity regarding their personal beliefs on such issues and are unsure how they should approach them in their roles as religious leaders (Ramirez-Johnson et al. 2013; Djupe and Neiheisal 2008; Ammerman 2000, 2005; Moon 2004; Wood 2000; Djupe and Gilbert 2009).
Views on Homosexuality and Academic Training of Clergy Clergy are often the first point of contact when it comes to crisis events, relational problems, mental health concerns, and sexual orientation issues, and often play a significant role in providing counseling and therapy, as needed, to their members (Turner and Stayton 2014). In regard to their views on sexual orientation, clergy have to take into consideration their religious organization’s stance (in this study for Christian clergy, for example, their reading of the Bible as understood by their denomination, and for Muslims their reading and interpretation of the Koran) and doctrine which may pose difficulties for those individuals whose views differ from the accepted norms regarding sexual orientation (Djupe and Neiheisal 2008; Djupe et al. 2006; Moon 2004; Olson et al. 2011). In a study by Bowland et al. (2013), the authors documented how gay/lesbian participants affirmed the value of clergy involvement in their lives. Moreover, they stated that pastoral care providers should take an active role in providing guidance in the spiritual journey of those seeking help integrating their identity and spiritual formation. Research shows that education plays a significant role in the development of the belief system of clergy in regards to the topic of sexuality (Turner and Stayton 2014). Turner and
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Stayton (2014) have shown that clergy often lack the training and education on topics of sexuality that results in these leaders being ill-equipped to address the needs of their congregation. Having received adequate education may play a role in clergy possessing more diverse views of sexuality. Thus, it appears that education promotes in clergy functioning as more inclusive religious/spiritual leaders in their community. This may be due to the fact that higher levels of education provide a more scholarly, scientifically based approach to knowledge and instruction and more opportunities for the application of critical thinking. Lacking education may expose clergy to a lack training; thus, it seems plausible that clergy with less education may hold to views of homosexuality that may not reflect society at large. They may have less current, less tolerant views, upholding instead what is acceptable only to their respective FBO traditions. As there is a paucity of studies that examine this topic, this study sought to explore how having received higher levels of education may have impacted clergy views on homosexuality as self-reported in the administered survey questions. The current study is based on a survey conducted with the Hidalgo County, Texas, senior clergy population. Clergy in this paper mainly, though not exclusively, refer to Christian denominational leaders in this sample.
Method Aims and Hypotheses The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between clergy level of education and their views regarding homosexuality. Overall, there appear to be few studies on religion and homosexuality (Anderson 1997; Beuttler 1999; Burgess 1999; Cadge 2002), but even fewer that examine clergy attitudes toward homosexuality (Wellman 1999). Olson and Cadge (2002) note that clergy regularly express indecision as the common theme when it comes to issues dealing with homosexuality. Specifically, this study examined whether level of education (high school, certificate, bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, and doctoral degree) would affect views on homosexuality. The research question was: Will level of education impact clergy views of homosexuality?
Participants The clergy of HCT were actively recruited to participate in this study that was approved by the institutional review board (IRB) of Loma Linda University and of the former University Texas–Pan American (currently known as University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, UTRGV). The research team was comprised of graduate and undergraduate social work students from the College of Health and Human Services, Department of Social Work, UTRGV. By combining available resources, a master list of approximately 301 property owner FBO was compiled from the Assessor’s Office of the Hidalgo County, Texas. Through personal contacts and/or telephone calls, all clergy associated with the aforementioned FBO properties were identified and invited to participate in this project. After the initial contact, face-to-face interviews were conducted. Students from UTRGV who received IRB training performed the face-to-face interviews with clergy members.
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Data were collected from the senior clergy members of the originally listed 301 FBO between January and May 2009. Out of the 301 identified FBO, there were 245 complete interviews with the senior clergy. The participation rate was 81 %, notably high compared with the 60 % participation rate of previous studies (Caldwell et al. 1995; Lincoln and Mamiya 1990). After data cleaning and screening, 231 total participants remained in the dataset for final analyses.
Procedure The clergy of HCT represented mostly Protestant and Catholic FBO and one Muslim congregation. Once the clergy were contacted, the research assistant explained the purpose and procedure of the study. The participant was given a consent form that stated the confidential nature of the information. The process for maintaining the privacy of information was thoroughly explained. Approximately 60–120 min was spent to complete the survey with an average of 90 min. The interviews were conducted, as chosen by the clergy member, primarily at the FBO address of the clergy member. To account for the language diversity in the Rio Grande Valley, the interviewee was given the option to take the survey in English or Spanish.
Design and Measure This study sought to replicate the interview questionnaire used by Williams et al. (1999) in their FBO of New Haven, Connecticut, research study. Additional survey questions were contextualized for HCT, and new questions were added to the original survey. The interview protocol focused on the following information: (a) types of services provided by the FBO; (b) demographic information of clergy and FBO; (c) intervention practices of clergy; (d) beliefs and attitudes about sexual orientation; and (e) MH training and education. It was determined that conducting personal one-on-one interviews using structured survey questions was the best method for data collection. It is noted that the term ‘‘clergy’’ denotes the recognized faith leader of the FBO, even though not all FBO may recognize this title as the appropriate classification.
Statistical Analyses Descriptive Analyses A series of descriptive analyses were conducted to gain a comprehensive picture of the demographic characteristics of the clergy and the MH intervention practices of the clergy in HCT. The average age of clergy was 53.6 years. Thirty-four out of the 245 clergy leaders were female. The majority (over 65 %) identified themselves as Latino/Hispanic. On average, clergy served 10.4 years in their respective FBO. In HCT, the majority of the population (33.5 %) are members of the Roman Catholic Church, though only 16 clergy (6.5 %) oversaw over one-third of the HCT religious population. Less than 20 % had other paid employment. Clergy were asked to report the name of the academic institution where they undertook their education.
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Variables of Interest Clergy Education Thirty (12 %) clergy leaders possessed high school education, 77 clergy leaders 31 %) had certificate only education, 28 (11 %) had bachelor level degrees, 44 (18 %) had master level degrees, 9 (4 %) had doctoral level degrees, and the remaining 57 (23 %) did not provide this information. Clergy were asked whether they thought homosexuals were more psychologically disturbed than heterosexuals. Comparison of the responses by education level is displayed in Table 1. Education was the single factor that showed a significant positive relationship with clergy perceptions about psychological disturbance in homosexuals. A Kruskal–Wallis test was conducted to evaluate the differences between levels of education (high school, certificate, bachelor’s, master’s doctoral levels), and results revealed a significant difference between the groups [H(3) = 11.40, p = .01] with a mean rank of 94.91 for high school, 93.73 for certificate, 95.21 for bachelor’s, 65.08 for master’s, and 75.33 for doctoral level of education. Mann–Whitney U tests were used as a follow-up to this finding. A Bonferroni correction was applied, and so all effects are reported at a .0167 level of significance. It appeared that there was no difference between those with high school level of education and certificate levels of education (U = 983, p [ .0167), bachelor levels (U = 362, p [ .0167), or doctorate level of education (U = 94.5, p [ .0167). There was also no difference between bachelor level and master level (U = 321, p [ .0167) or bachelor and doctorate levels (U = 81, p [ .0167). There was, however, a significant difference between those with high school level of education and master level (U = 362, p = .007), high school and doctoral level of education (U = 951.5, p = .002), and certificate and master’s levels of education (U = 951.5, p = .002). Overall, clergy with more education appeared to report lower levels of agreement that homosexuals were more psychologically disturbed than heterosexuals compared to those with less education. Those with less education were also significantly less likely to make referrals to mental health agencies or professionals X2 (4, N = 167) = 11.89, p = .018. In other words, clergy with more education were more likely to engage in MH referrals than those who received less education (Table 2). These results were similar to those of a study by Williams et al. (1999) in which African-American clergy in New Haven, Connecticut, with less education were less likely to engage in the MH referral process. Furthermore, Thomas (2012) documented how academic education was the strongest positive indicator of collaborative practice with MH Table 1 Homosexuals are more psychologically disturbed than heterosexuals Education level
% Strongly disagree/disagree
% Strongly agree/agree
High school
46
47
Certificate
47
45
BS/BA
42
44
MS/MA
75
16
Doctorate
67
33
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Yes
No
Total
Highest level of education High school
17
10
27
Certificate
32
37
69
BS/BA
14
11
25
MS/MA
29
8
37
Doctorate Total
7
2
9
99
68
167
professionals. Education, it is concluded, plays a significant role in collaborative MH practice as also documented by Pen˜a et al. (2005).
Discussion Overall, most clergy (more than 80 % of those interviewed) seemingly favored a biomedical understanding of mental illness. There were no statistically significant differences between the religious only education (certificate only) and more traditional college education (bachelor, master, doctoral level) groups when it came to attitudes about psychological disorders and their treatment. Still, while the views on mental health at large seemingly indicated that the HCT clergy had a clinically acceptable view of mental health issues, when it came to homosexuality there appeared to be deviation from the medical and social norms of today. Results of our analyses indicated that the HCT clergy seemingly viewed homosexual individuals as having ‘‘more disturbance’’ when compared to the other mental health issues; the difference appeared to be related to level of education and not type of education. We did not, however, operationalize what the term disturbance meant, so it could imply several things, including greater levels of distress, internal turmoil, and, of course, external/environmental conflict they observed the individual experiencing. No current literature on how type of education impacts views of homosexuality and MH referral practices were found. This research contributes to existing knowledge about religion and homosexuality in current society by exploring the perspectives on homosexuality in the context of MH of the respective clergy in various FBO in HCT. This investigation confirmed that education played a significant role in the difficulty clergy have in the understanding of homosexuality. More specifically, more traditional, college level education was statistically documented as making a difference in clergy views of homosexuality when compared to less education or ministerial certification type education only. This study expands upon previous literature by examining the type of education and its corresponding philosophical perspectives that clergy received via their education and examined how type of education seemingly influenced clergy views on homosexuality. The following conclusions are made regarding clergy perspectives on homosexuality: First, the level of education clergy receive plays an important role in how clergy conceptualize sexual identity issues. Clergy who receive higher levels of formal education are exposed to more current medical views and perspectives that may allow them to develop a more comprehensive understanding of homosexuality. Clergy who do not receive more extensive education may receive education that adheres only to more traditional or outdated
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beliefs regarding homosexuality, if any, that could still be associating homosexuality with psychological disturbance only. Second, similar to the conclusions of Cadge et al. (2012), this study may reveal that, overall, clergy are expressing uncertainty regarding their views on homosexuality. It is hypothesized that clergy experience significant dissonance between their professional roles, denominational polity and doctrinal views, and the social mainstream views on homosexuality. It was learned that denominational affiliation per se does not confine the views on homosexuality as a mental disease; the type of education clergy received did seemingly confine their views on the matter, possibly due to a lack of exposure to more scientific, medical, and current psychological perspectives on this issue. The vast majority of clergy reportedly lacked the resources, time, and availability to provide appropriate services to the members of their FBO. However, by having accredited educational experiences or subsequent training, and developing a scientific and medically appropriate knowledge base, clergy will be able to make the necessary adjustments in their views that will translate into appropriate interventions. This study emphasizes the need to address clergy education on the topics of sexuality and sexual identity. It seems that clergy and their FBO denominations have the need to face the conflicting views between the current scientific and social views and norms of homosexuality and the views of their traditions and beliefs. FBO can no longer ignore the tension that exists between the two views. Clergy today need the education and training that can help them articulate the views and perspectives of the different sexual orientations and perspectives that are in a cogent fashion with the current views and understanding of science. Specifically, as documented by Pen˜a et al. (2005), Hispanic ministers in particular face an acute need for better ministerial training if they are to be effective, and also note that ‘‘providing more practical education will help church leaders overcome their own communities’ ambivalence toward higher education’’ (p. 21). Can such ‘‘practical education’’ be provided via workshops? Future research should look into how continuing education dealing with sexual orientation and homosexuality may affect clergy’s views on homosexuality.
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