This article was downloaded by: [Washburn University] On: 22 October 2014, At: 01:21 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20
The Impact of Exercise Performance Dissatisfaction and Physical Exercise on Symptoms of Depression Among College Students: A Gender Comparison a
b
Jeanne L. Edman , Wesley C. Lynch & Alayne Yates
c
a
Cosumnes River College
b
Montana State University
c
University of Hawai’i Published online: 08 Nov 2013.
To cite this article: Jeanne L. Edman , Wesley C. Lynch & Alayne Yates (2014) The Impact of Exercise Performance Dissatisfaction and Physical Exercise on Symptoms of Depression Among College Students: A Gender Comparison, The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 148:1, 23-35, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2012.737871 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2012.737871
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views
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The Journal of Psychology, 2014, 148(1), 23–35 C 2014 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Copyright
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
The Impact of Exercise Performance Dissatisfaction and Physical Exercise on Symptoms of Depression Among College Students: A Gender Comparison JEANNE L. EDMAN Cosumnes River College WESLEY C. LYNCH Montana State University ALAYNE YATES University of Hawai’i
ABSTRACT. Depression is a common psychological problem and females have been found to be at greater risk for this disorder than males. Although numerous studies have found that physical exercise is negatively associated with risk of depression, some studies suggest that negative exercise attitudes may increase the risk of depression. The present study used the survey method to examine the relationship between depressive symptoms, exercise performance dissatisfaction, body dissatisfaction, and physical exercise among a sample of 895 undergraduate university students. Females reported higher depression and exercise performance dissatisfaction scores than males; however, there were no gender differences in body dissatisfaction. Exercise performance dissatisfaction was positively associated with depression among both males and females. Physical exercise was negatively associated with depression among males, but not among females. The possibility of screening participants enrolled in exercise programs for performance dissatisfaction is discussed as negative exercise attitudes may diminish the positive impact of exercise on depressed mood. Keywords: body dissatisfaction, depression, exercise, negative exercise attitudes
DEPRESSION IS A SERIOUS MENTAL HEALTH challenge of the decade with about 7% of the American population suffering from this disorder in a given year (National Institute of Mental Health, 2008). The prevalence of depression Address correspondence to Jeanne L. Edman, Department of Social Sciences, Cosumnes River College, 8401 Center Parkway, Sacramento, CA 95823, USA; edmanj@crc. losiros.edu (e-mail). 23
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
24
The Journal of Psychology
among college students is especially high. Fur, Westerfeld, McConnell, and Jenkins (2001) determined that more than 50% of students had experienced symptoms of depression during their college attendance. Numerous studies suggest that females are at higher risk for depression than males (Bayram & Bilget, 2008; Dixon, Scheidegger, & McWhirter, 2009; Hudson, Towey, & Shinar, 2008). For example, Eisenberg, Golberstein, and Hunt (2009) studied a sample of more than 2700 American university students with females reporting higher symptom levels of depression than males. Armstrong and Ooman-Early (2009) examined depression symptoms in college athletes and non-athletes and found that females reported higher risk of depression in both groups. There is growing concern about the increased rates of depression among young adults of both genders as depression symptoms are associated with a variety of other psychological problems such as eating disorders (Aruguete, Yates, Edman, & Sanders, 2007; Wildes, Simons, & Marcus, 2005), insomnia (Brooks, Girgenti, & Mills, 2009), and anxiety (Dixon et al., 2009; Sumer, Poyrazli, & Grahame, 2008). Furthermore, depression is shown to be negatively associated with college academic success (Deroma, Leach, & Leverett, 2009; Eisenberg et al.). Depression and Physical Exercise Participation in physical exercise is negatively correlated with a variety of psychological disorders including depression and anxiety (Adams, Moore, & Dye, 2007; Balkin, Tietjen-Smith, Caldwell, & Shen, 2007; Leach, Christensen, Mackinnon, Windsor, & Butterworth, 2008; Piko & Keresztes, 2006; Strohle et al., 2007; Wise, Adams-Campbell, Palmer, & Rosenberg, 2006). Findings from a review of more than 65 studies indicated that even low levels of physical activity might produce a protective effect against depression (Teychenne, Ball, & Salmon, 2008). Taliaferro, Rienzo, Pigg, Miller, and Dodd (2008) examined the relationship between exercise and depression in a large sample of more than 40,000 college students; results indicated that students who engaged in weekly aerobic exercise reported lower levels of depression and suicidal behavior. The negative association between depression symptoms and exercise has been demonstrated in both clinical (Craft, Freund, Culpepper, & Perna, 2007; Harris, Cronkite, & Moos, 2006) and non-clinical samples (Adams et al.; Piko & Keresztes, 2006). Furthermore, implementation of physical exercise programs decreased depression symptoms among clinically depressed women (Craft et al.; de la Cerda, Cervello, Cocca, & Viciana, 2011). In contrast to the aforementioned findings, no relationship was found between physical activity level and depression among a large sample female adolescents (Goldfield et al., 2011). Depression and Exercise Attitudes Although a number of studies suggest that exercise is negatively associated with depression, some studies indicate that certain negative attitudes toward exercise and the body are related to depression (Aruguete, Yates, Edman, & Sanders, 2007) and may diminish the positive psychological impact of physical
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
Edman, Lynch, & Yates
25
exercise itself, especially among women (Boyd, Abraham, & Luscombe, 2007). For example negative exercise motivation, such as exercising primarily for appearance, was linked to greater levels of psychopathology (McDonald & Thompson, 1992; Mond, Myers, Crosby, Hay, & Mitchell, 2008). Exercise performance dissatisfaction is also associated with other forms of psychological distress, including disordered eating attitudes (Aruguete, Yates, & Edman, 2007; Edman, Yates, Aruguete, & DeBord, 2005; Lynch, Eldridge, Edman, & Yates, 2011), body dissatisfaction (Edman & Yates, 2005), and depression (Aruguete, Yates, Edman, & Sanders, 2007). Body dissatisfaction is positively associated with depression among females in both non-clinical and clinical samples (Aruguete et al., 2007; Paxton, Neumark-Sztainer, Hannan, & Eisenberg, 2006; Wildes et al., 2005) and it is a significant predictor of depressive mood among both genders (Paxton et al., 2006; Wiederman & Pryor, 2000). Paradoxically, females demonstrate higher levels of exercise performance dissatisfaction (Aruguete et al., 2007) and greater body dissatisfaction than males (Blackmer, Searight, & Ratwik, 2011; Edman et al., 2005; Ferreiro, Seoane, & Senra, 2011; McDonald & Thompson, 1992). However, recent studies indicate that adolescent boys have similar or even higher levels of body dissatisfaction than girls (Aruguete et al., 2007; Edman, Yates, Aruguete, & Draeger, 2008) and it is not uncommon for males to report dissatisfaction with muscularity and a desire to gain weight (LaCaille, Dauner, Krambeer, & Pedersen, 2011; Leone et al., 2011; McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Thus, more research needs to be conducted to further explore gender differences in body dissatisfaction. The aforementioned research demonstrates that depression is a significant mental health problem and highlights the need for a better understanding of the association between physical exercise, negative exercise attitudes, and depression. Numerous studies indicate a negative relationship between exercise and depression, but recent research failed to replicate this finding among females. Also, negative attitudes toward the body and exercise have been associated with increased risk of depression. Although a number of studies indicate that women are at higher risk for depression, negative exercise attitudes, and body dissatisfaction, male body dissatisfaction appears to be increasing. Thus, more research is needed to further explore these gender differences. The first goal of this study is to further examine the relationship between depression, body dissatisfaction and negative exercise attitudes. Second, we will examine whether there are gender differences in these variables and make the following predictions: 1. Female students would report higher levels of depression and exercise performance dissatisfaction than males. 2. There would be a negative association between symptoms of depression and physical exercise for both genders. 3. Body dissatisfaction and exercise performance dissatisfaction would be positively associated with depression for both genders.
26
The Journal of Psychology
TABLE 1. Participant Characteristics by Gender
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
Measure Age (mean, SD) BMI (mean, SD) Ethnicity White Multiple ethnic Japanese Filipino Native Hawaiian Chinese Other Income Under $10,000 10,000–49,999 50,000–99,999 100,000 or higher Native English speaker
Male
Female
23.02 (7.24) 25.06 (5.55)
23.87 (7.92) 24.08 (5.48)
28% 21% 21% 9% 10% 3% 8%
26% 24% 15% 14% 10% 4% 7%
4% 48% 37% 11% 91%
4% 39% 44% 13% 88%
Method Participants Participants were a convenience sample of 895 undergraduate students (61% female; 49% males) from six University of Hawai’i campuses who volunteered to complete the survey. Surveys were administered in a variety of social science, nursing, and philosophy classes. Teachers were contacted in advance and agreed to make time available either during or after classes on a voluntary basis. Students completed the surveys using paper and pencil. Demographic and other background information is presented in Table 1. Materials and Procedures Participants signed a written consent form prior to data collection that was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Hawai’i. The survey packet consisted of several sections including four previously validated screening instruments. A demographics section asked students their gender, height, weight, and ethnicity. Research instruments included the Center for Epidemiologic Depression Scales (CES-D), the Figure Rating Scale (FRS), the Self Loathing Subscale (SSLS) of the Exercise Orientation Questionnaire, and measures of exercise performance.
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
Edman, Lynch, & Yates
27
Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D) The CES-D (Radloff, 1977) was developed to measure depressive symptoms in the general population and consists of twenty 4-point Likert format items. Sample items include: “I felt depressed” and “I felt sad.” The CES-D total score can range from 0–60; individuals with scores of 16 or greater are viewed as being at risk for depression (Radloff). The CES-D has been found to be a reliable and valid measure of depression among a variety of age and ethnic groups including Asian and Pacific Islanders (Aruguete, Yates, Edman, & Sanders, 2007; Boutin-Foster, 2008; Cheng & Chan, 2008; Kanazawa, White, & Hampson, 2007). Chronbach’s alpha for the present sample was .91 for females and .90 for males.
Figure Rating Scale (FRS) The FRS, originally developed by Stunkard, Sorenson, and Schulsinger (1983), was designed to assess body size or shape satisfaction. The FRS includes nine gender-specific body shape figures ranging from a very slim (1) to a very large figure (9). Participants were asked to select the figure most similar to his or her current body shape and then to choose the figure that most closely matched his or her ideal shape. The Body Dissatisfaction (BD) score was derived based on the absolute value of the current body figure minus the desired figure. Psychometric studies have shown this method of assessing BD has high test-retest reliability and moderate construct validity when compared to other methods of BD assessment among females and is an appropriate measure of the thinness dimension of body dissatisfaction among males (Thompson & Altabe, 1991; Williams, Gleaves, Cepeda-Benito, Erath, & Cororve, 2001) Exercise Orientation: Self Loathing Subscale (SLSS) Exercise performance dissatisfaction was assessed using the Self Loathing Subscale (SLSS) of the Exercise Orientation Questionnaire. The Exercise Orientation Questionnaire (EOQ) is a 27-item instrument that assesses seven major exercise orientation factors (Yates, Edman, Crago, & Crowell, 2001). The SLSS subscale includes the following four items: “I disliked my body before I began to exercise,” “I am dissatisfied with my performance,” “I hate my body when it won’t do what I want,” and “If I don’t reach my goals I feel like a failure.” All items were scored on 5-point Likert scales ranging from 5 = “strongly agree” to 1 = “strongly disagree.” The SLSS total score was computed by summing the four item scores. The SLSS has demonstrated high internal consistency and both concurrent and convergent validity and has been successfully used as a measure for assessing risk of disordered eating and perfectionism among a variety of ethnic and age groups (Aruguete, Edman, & Yates, 2007; Yates et al.; Yates, Edman, & Crowell, 2003;Yates, Andrus, & Draeger, 2007). It was the only EOQ subscale that successfully discriminated between clinical groups (eating disordered and obese)
28
The Journal of Psychology
TABLE 2. Mean (+1 SD) for CES-D Total Score, Body Dissatisfaction Score, SLSS Score, and Hours Exercised by Gender Gender
CES-D
BodyDis
SLSS
ExHours
Female Male
15.41 (10.68) 13.52 (10.21)
1.25 (.98) 1.14 (.98)
11.48 (3.66) 10.81 (3.41)
4.32 (4.75) 6.26 (5.27)
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
Note. BodyDis = Body Dissatisfaction, SLSS = Exercise Self Loathing sub-scale score, ExHours = hours exercised. See Results section for statistically significant differences.
and healthy controls (Yates et al.). Chronbach’s alpha for the present study was .77 for females and .70 for males. Physical Exercise Items Four additional items related to physical exercise were included: “Approximately how many hours per week do you exercise?,” “How would you describe your exercise intensity?” (1 = mild to 3 = strenuous), “How committed are you to exercising regularly?,” (1 = couldn’t care less to 7 = totally committed), and “How frequently do you exercise?” (1 = rarely to 3 = regularly). Results Several t-test analyses were conducted to examine whether there were gender differences in depression (CES-D), body dissatisfaction (BD), exercise performance dissatisfaction (SLSS) scores, and the various exercise measures. As predicted (H1), females reported significantly higher CES-D (t (879) = 2.74; p < .01) and SLSS (t (865) = 2.69; p < .01) scores than males (see Table 2) and there were no significant gender differences in BD. Males reported higher levels of weekly exercise hours (t (844) = 5.55; p < .001), exercise regularity (t (865) = 4.03; p < .001), exercise intensity (t (860) = 49 7.05; p < .001), and exercise frequency (t (866) = 4.82; p
The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20
The Impact of Exercise Performance Dissatisfaction and Physical Exercise on Symptoms of Depression Among College Students: A Gender Comparison a
b
Jeanne L. Edman , Wesley C. Lynch & Alayne Yates
c
a
Cosumnes River College
b
Montana State University
c
University of Hawai’i Published online: 08 Nov 2013.
To cite this article: Jeanne L. Edman , Wesley C. Lynch & Alayne Yates (2014) The Impact of Exercise Performance Dissatisfaction and Physical Exercise on Symptoms of Depression Among College Students: A Gender Comparison, The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 148:1, 23-35, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2012.737871 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2012.737871
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views
expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
The Journal of Psychology, 2014, 148(1), 23–35 C 2014 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Copyright
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
The Impact of Exercise Performance Dissatisfaction and Physical Exercise on Symptoms of Depression Among College Students: A Gender Comparison JEANNE L. EDMAN Cosumnes River College WESLEY C. LYNCH Montana State University ALAYNE YATES University of Hawai’i
ABSTRACT. Depression is a common psychological problem and females have been found to be at greater risk for this disorder than males. Although numerous studies have found that physical exercise is negatively associated with risk of depression, some studies suggest that negative exercise attitudes may increase the risk of depression. The present study used the survey method to examine the relationship between depressive symptoms, exercise performance dissatisfaction, body dissatisfaction, and physical exercise among a sample of 895 undergraduate university students. Females reported higher depression and exercise performance dissatisfaction scores than males; however, there were no gender differences in body dissatisfaction. Exercise performance dissatisfaction was positively associated with depression among both males and females. Physical exercise was negatively associated with depression among males, but not among females. The possibility of screening participants enrolled in exercise programs for performance dissatisfaction is discussed as negative exercise attitudes may diminish the positive impact of exercise on depressed mood. Keywords: body dissatisfaction, depression, exercise, negative exercise attitudes
DEPRESSION IS A SERIOUS MENTAL HEALTH challenge of the decade with about 7% of the American population suffering from this disorder in a given year (National Institute of Mental Health, 2008). The prevalence of depression Address correspondence to Jeanne L. Edman, Department of Social Sciences, Cosumnes River College, 8401 Center Parkway, Sacramento, CA 95823, USA; edmanj@crc. losiros.edu (e-mail). 23
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
24
The Journal of Psychology
among college students is especially high. Fur, Westerfeld, McConnell, and Jenkins (2001) determined that more than 50% of students had experienced symptoms of depression during their college attendance. Numerous studies suggest that females are at higher risk for depression than males (Bayram & Bilget, 2008; Dixon, Scheidegger, & McWhirter, 2009; Hudson, Towey, & Shinar, 2008). For example, Eisenberg, Golberstein, and Hunt (2009) studied a sample of more than 2700 American university students with females reporting higher symptom levels of depression than males. Armstrong and Ooman-Early (2009) examined depression symptoms in college athletes and non-athletes and found that females reported higher risk of depression in both groups. There is growing concern about the increased rates of depression among young adults of both genders as depression symptoms are associated with a variety of other psychological problems such as eating disorders (Aruguete, Yates, Edman, & Sanders, 2007; Wildes, Simons, & Marcus, 2005), insomnia (Brooks, Girgenti, & Mills, 2009), and anxiety (Dixon et al., 2009; Sumer, Poyrazli, & Grahame, 2008). Furthermore, depression is shown to be negatively associated with college academic success (Deroma, Leach, & Leverett, 2009; Eisenberg et al.). Depression and Physical Exercise Participation in physical exercise is negatively correlated with a variety of psychological disorders including depression and anxiety (Adams, Moore, & Dye, 2007; Balkin, Tietjen-Smith, Caldwell, & Shen, 2007; Leach, Christensen, Mackinnon, Windsor, & Butterworth, 2008; Piko & Keresztes, 2006; Strohle et al., 2007; Wise, Adams-Campbell, Palmer, & Rosenberg, 2006). Findings from a review of more than 65 studies indicated that even low levels of physical activity might produce a protective effect against depression (Teychenne, Ball, & Salmon, 2008). Taliaferro, Rienzo, Pigg, Miller, and Dodd (2008) examined the relationship between exercise and depression in a large sample of more than 40,000 college students; results indicated that students who engaged in weekly aerobic exercise reported lower levels of depression and suicidal behavior. The negative association between depression symptoms and exercise has been demonstrated in both clinical (Craft, Freund, Culpepper, & Perna, 2007; Harris, Cronkite, & Moos, 2006) and non-clinical samples (Adams et al.; Piko & Keresztes, 2006). Furthermore, implementation of physical exercise programs decreased depression symptoms among clinically depressed women (Craft et al.; de la Cerda, Cervello, Cocca, & Viciana, 2011). In contrast to the aforementioned findings, no relationship was found between physical activity level and depression among a large sample female adolescents (Goldfield et al., 2011). Depression and Exercise Attitudes Although a number of studies suggest that exercise is negatively associated with depression, some studies indicate that certain negative attitudes toward exercise and the body are related to depression (Aruguete, Yates, Edman, & Sanders, 2007) and may diminish the positive psychological impact of physical
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
Edman, Lynch, & Yates
25
exercise itself, especially among women (Boyd, Abraham, & Luscombe, 2007). For example negative exercise motivation, such as exercising primarily for appearance, was linked to greater levels of psychopathology (McDonald & Thompson, 1992; Mond, Myers, Crosby, Hay, & Mitchell, 2008). Exercise performance dissatisfaction is also associated with other forms of psychological distress, including disordered eating attitudes (Aruguete, Yates, & Edman, 2007; Edman, Yates, Aruguete, & DeBord, 2005; Lynch, Eldridge, Edman, & Yates, 2011), body dissatisfaction (Edman & Yates, 2005), and depression (Aruguete, Yates, Edman, & Sanders, 2007). Body dissatisfaction is positively associated with depression among females in both non-clinical and clinical samples (Aruguete et al., 2007; Paxton, Neumark-Sztainer, Hannan, & Eisenberg, 2006; Wildes et al., 2005) and it is a significant predictor of depressive mood among both genders (Paxton et al., 2006; Wiederman & Pryor, 2000). Paradoxically, females demonstrate higher levels of exercise performance dissatisfaction (Aruguete et al., 2007) and greater body dissatisfaction than males (Blackmer, Searight, & Ratwik, 2011; Edman et al., 2005; Ferreiro, Seoane, & Senra, 2011; McDonald & Thompson, 1992). However, recent studies indicate that adolescent boys have similar or even higher levels of body dissatisfaction than girls (Aruguete et al., 2007; Edman, Yates, Aruguete, & Draeger, 2008) and it is not uncommon for males to report dissatisfaction with muscularity and a desire to gain weight (LaCaille, Dauner, Krambeer, & Pedersen, 2011; Leone et al., 2011; McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Thus, more research needs to be conducted to further explore gender differences in body dissatisfaction. The aforementioned research demonstrates that depression is a significant mental health problem and highlights the need for a better understanding of the association between physical exercise, negative exercise attitudes, and depression. Numerous studies indicate a negative relationship between exercise and depression, but recent research failed to replicate this finding among females. Also, negative attitudes toward the body and exercise have been associated with increased risk of depression. Although a number of studies indicate that women are at higher risk for depression, negative exercise attitudes, and body dissatisfaction, male body dissatisfaction appears to be increasing. Thus, more research is needed to further explore these gender differences. The first goal of this study is to further examine the relationship between depression, body dissatisfaction and negative exercise attitudes. Second, we will examine whether there are gender differences in these variables and make the following predictions: 1. Female students would report higher levels of depression and exercise performance dissatisfaction than males. 2. There would be a negative association between symptoms of depression and physical exercise for both genders. 3. Body dissatisfaction and exercise performance dissatisfaction would be positively associated with depression for both genders.
26
The Journal of Psychology
TABLE 1. Participant Characteristics by Gender
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
Measure Age (mean, SD) BMI (mean, SD) Ethnicity White Multiple ethnic Japanese Filipino Native Hawaiian Chinese Other Income Under $10,000 10,000–49,999 50,000–99,999 100,000 or higher Native English speaker
Male
Female
23.02 (7.24) 25.06 (5.55)
23.87 (7.92) 24.08 (5.48)
28% 21% 21% 9% 10% 3% 8%
26% 24% 15% 14% 10% 4% 7%
4% 48% 37% 11% 91%
4% 39% 44% 13% 88%
Method Participants Participants were a convenience sample of 895 undergraduate students (61% female; 49% males) from six University of Hawai’i campuses who volunteered to complete the survey. Surveys were administered in a variety of social science, nursing, and philosophy classes. Teachers were contacted in advance and agreed to make time available either during or after classes on a voluntary basis. Students completed the surveys using paper and pencil. Demographic and other background information is presented in Table 1. Materials and Procedures Participants signed a written consent form prior to data collection that was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Hawai’i. The survey packet consisted of several sections including four previously validated screening instruments. A demographics section asked students their gender, height, weight, and ethnicity. Research instruments included the Center for Epidemiologic Depression Scales (CES-D), the Figure Rating Scale (FRS), the Self Loathing Subscale (SSLS) of the Exercise Orientation Questionnaire, and measures of exercise performance.
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
Edman, Lynch, & Yates
27
Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D) The CES-D (Radloff, 1977) was developed to measure depressive symptoms in the general population and consists of twenty 4-point Likert format items. Sample items include: “I felt depressed” and “I felt sad.” The CES-D total score can range from 0–60; individuals with scores of 16 or greater are viewed as being at risk for depression (Radloff). The CES-D has been found to be a reliable and valid measure of depression among a variety of age and ethnic groups including Asian and Pacific Islanders (Aruguete, Yates, Edman, & Sanders, 2007; Boutin-Foster, 2008; Cheng & Chan, 2008; Kanazawa, White, & Hampson, 2007). Chronbach’s alpha for the present sample was .91 for females and .90 for males.
Figure Rating Scale (FRS) The FRS, originally developed by Stunkard, Sorenson, and Schulsinger (1983), was designed to assess body size or shape satisfaction. The FRS includes nine gender-specific body shape figures ranging from a very slim (1) to a very large figure (9). Participants were asked to select the figure most similar to his or her current body shape and then to choose the figure that most closely matched his or her ideal shape. The Body Dissatisfaction (BD) score was derived based on the absolute value of the current body figure minus the desired figure. Psychometric studies have shown this method of assessing BD has high test-retest reliability and moderate construct validity when compared to other methods of BD assessment among females and is an appropriate measure of the thinness dimension of body dissatisfaction among males (Thompson & Altabe, 1991; Williams, Gleaves, Cepeda-Benito, Erath, & Cororve, 2001) Exercise Orientation: Self Loathing Subscale (SLSS) Exercise performance dissatisfaction was assessed using the Self Loathing Subscale (SLSS) of the Exercise Orientation Questionnaire. The Exercise Orientation Questionnaire (EOQ) is a 27-item instrument that assesses seven major exercise orientation factors (Yates, Edman, Crago, & Crowell, 2001). The SLSS subscale includes the following four items: “I disliked my body before I began to exercise,” “I am dissatisfied with my performance,” “I hate my body when it won’t do what I want,” and “If I don’t reach my goals I feel like a failure.” All items were scored on 5-point Likert scales ranging from 5 = “strongly agree” to 1 = “strongly disagree.” The SLSS total score was computed by summing the four item scores. The SLSS has demonstrated high internal consistency and both concurrent and convergent validity and has been successfully used as a measure for assessing risk of disordered eating and perfectionism among a variety of ethnic and age groups (Aruguete, Edman, & Yates, 2007; Yates et al.; Yates, Edman, & Crowell, 2003;Yates, Andrus, & Draeger, 2007). It was the only EOQ subscale that successfully discriminated between clinical groups (eating disordered and obese)
28
The Journal of Psychology
TABLE 2. Mean (+1 SD) for CES-D Total Score, Body Dissatisfaction Score, SLSS Score, and Hours Exercised by Gender Gender
CES-D
BodyDis
SLSS
ExHours
Female Male
15.41 (10.68) 13.52 (10.21)
1.25 (.98) 1.14 (.98)
11.48 (3.66) 10.81 (3.41)
4.32 (4.75) 6.26 (5.27)
Downloaded by [Washburn University] at 01:21 22 October 2014
Note. BodyDis = Body Dissatisfaction, SLSS = Exercise Self Loathing sub-scale score, ExHours = hours exercised. See Results section for statistically significant differences.
and healthy controls (Yates et al.). Chronbach’s alpha for the present study was .77 for females and .70 for males. Physical Exercise Items Four additional items related to physical exercise were included: “Approximately how many hours per week do you exercise?,” “How would you describe your exercise intensity?” (1 = mild to 3 = strenuous), “How committed are you to exercising regularly?,” (1 = couldn’t care less to 7 = totally committed), and “How frequently do you exercise?” (1 = rarely to 3 = regularly). Results Several t-test analyses were conducted to examine whether there were gender differences in depression (CES-D), body dissatisfaction (BD), exercise performance dissatisfaction (SLSS) scores, and the various exercise measures. As predicted (H1), females reported significantly higher CES-D (t (879) = 2.74; p < .01) and SLSS (t (865) = 2.69; p < .01) scores than males (see Table 2) and there were no significant gender differences in BD. Males reported higher levels of weekly exercise hours (t (844) = 5.55; p < .001), exercise regularity (t (865) = 4.03; p < .001), exercise intensity (t (860) = 49 7.05; p < .001), and exercise frequency (t (866) = 4.82; p
