PREVENTIVEMEDICINE7, 338-348 (1978)
The Impact
of Hazards MICHAEL
Center for Occupational
Hazards,
in Art on Female Workers MCCANN’ Inc., New York, New York I0005
In the last few years, artists and craftspeople have become concerned about the hazards of arts and crafts materials. Most artists and craftspeople have been working with a wide variety of toxic materials without adequate precautions and usually without even the knowledge that these materials were hazardous. Studies show that 78.5 million people are engaged in arts and crafts, of which at least half a million are professional artists and craftspeople. Of the latter, at least 50% are women. Artists and craftspeople face many of the same occupational health hazards as are found in the more conventional workplace. Since most artists work at home, there are additional risks, such as 24-hr exposures and exposure of other family members. Women artists also face additional hazards to themselves and the embryo during pregnancy and to the infant during breast-feeding. Artists and craftspeople often find it difficult to obtain proper diagnosis of art material-related illnesses. This can be a more serious problem for women who are often stereotyped as subject to psychosomatic illnesses and hypochondria. Finally, the article discusses basic precautions that can be taken by artists and craftspeople to work safely with their materials.
In the last decade, occupational health hazards in industry have generated considerable concern. In recent years, this concern has extended to industries which have not been traditionally considered hazardous, particularly such female-dominated industries as laundries, beauty parlors, housekeeping, service work, dental laboratories, etc. (8, 19, 20,43). The arts and crafts are another such industry which has a large number of women workers and has been ignored by most occupational health professionals. It has become evident that artists and craftspeople have been working with a wide variety of toxic materials without adequate precautions and usually without even the knowledge that the materials were hazardous. There is growing concern among artists and craftspeople about the hazards of their materials and interest in knowing how to work safely with them, which has resulted in a growing body of literature on the health hazards of art materials (1, 2, 4-7, 10-12, 14-18, 21, 24-33,39-42,44-50). This includes articles and columns in many artists’ publications, pamphlets, books, and articles in the scientific and medical literature. The interest in information is also reflected by the growing demand for lectures and workshops on the hazards of art materials and in the hundreds of inquiries received at the Art Hazards Information Center.2 WHO IS AT RISK?
There are few statistics available on the number of people who might be exposed to toxic arts and crafts materials. A 1975 poll commissioned by the As’ Address requests for reprints to: Michael McCann, Ph.D., President, Center for Occupational Hazards, Inc., 56 Pine Street, New York, New York 10005. * The Art Hazards Information Center is a project of the Center for Occupational &z&s, Inc. It is Partially funded by the New York State Council on the Arts, the National Endowment for the Arts, and is the recipient of a National Science Foundation Public Service Science Residency for 1977- 1978. 338 0091-7435/78/0073-0338$02.00/O Copyright 0 1978 by Academic Press. Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
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sociated Council on the Arts (3) found that 39% of the population, representing 56.7 million people, are currently engaged in woodworking, weaving, pottery, ceramics, or other crafts and that 16%, representing 21.8 million people, are currently engaged in painting, drawing or sculpture. This study does not include people under the age of 16. The above figures would include hobbyists, art teachers, and professional artists and craftspeople. Hobbyists would be expected to represent the vast majority, but there is no estimate of how much time they might spend on their arts and crafts. Estimates of the number of professional artists and craftspeople are also available. A study commissioned by the National Endowment for the Arts (34), estimated that there are between 250,000 and 350,000 professional craftspeople in the country, based on estimates of membership in crafts organizations. The National Endowment for the Arts (35) found that 129,000 people listed their occupation as painters or sculptors in the 1970 United States census. This does not include other art areas or people who might have listed themselves under some other category but are also professional artists (e.g., art teachers, housewives). Estimates of the number of female professional artists and craftspeople vary. A 1975 survey by the 37,000-member American Crafts Council found that its membership was 72% women (13). The data from the 1970 census found that 44% of those listing their profession as painters or sculptors were women (35). The National Women’s Caucus for Art has estimated that 50% of recipients of graduate art degrees and 50% of professional artists are women (36). This figure has also been found in other surveys (23, 47). These figures are also reflected in inquiries to the Art Hazards Information Center. Approximately 65% of the inquiries received from artists and craftspeople are from women. Similarly, 75% of the artists responding to a health hazards questionnaire distributed by the Professional Artists Guild were women (32). These statistics show that there is an enormous population of hobbyists who are potentially at risk of exposure to toxic arts and crafts materials. The risk is smallest for the hobbyists because they will tend to spend less time at the hobby than will professional artists and craftspeople and usually will also be working with smaller amounts of materials. However, hobbyists are probably less aware of the hazards of arts and crafts materials than are professional artists and craftspeople, thus increasing the risk of injury due to lack of precautions. Figures also indicate that there is a substantial number of professional artists and craftspeople-possibly greater than one-half million-who are at substantially greater risk. HOW SERIOUS ARE THE HAZARDS?
Contrary to many people’s stereotypes of how artists work, most professional artists and craftspeople usually work regular hours. Partial, preliminary results from a recent study of the Crafts Professionals of Vermont (47) showed that their average work week was 34.1 hr per week, with 46% working 40 or more hr per week. Under these conditions, there can be substantial risk to artists when they are working with toxic materials. Today artists and craftspeople are experimenting with a wide range of materials, many of them highly toxic. Even many of the traditional art materials are toxic (see Table 1) (11, 29, 40, 46).
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TABLE 1 EXAMPLES OF Toxic
ART MATERIALS IN COMMON USE
Dyes and Pigments Lead, cadmium, and other metallic dust and fumes Silica-containing stones and clays Adhesives
Lacquer and paint thinners Paint and varnish removers Cleaning solvents Asbestos Plastics Resins
A few air monitoring surveys have been published which can give an estimate of the seriousness of the problem. A survey of the Cooper Union School of Art in New York by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (37) showed excessive exposures to benzene, methyl Cellosolve acetate, lead, and crystalline silica (see Table 2). A study of paint stripping with a benzenecontaining paint stripper showed an average breathing zone exposure to benzene of 130 ppm over a 25min period (50). This is well above the ceiling of 5 ppm for benzene under the new OSHA standard (38). A survey was undertaken at the University of Maryland after a lithographer at the university developed aplastic anemia (39). Four-hour time-weighted averaged air samples showed that the air in the solvent use area contained 1.9 times the allowable safe concentrations of mineral spirits, turpentine, toluene and xylene; the air in the trash can area contained 10.4 times the allowable safe concentrations of these solvents. Some studies have used questionnaires to evaluate the hazard. In the NIOSH Cooper Union study, 40% of 42 artists interviewed indicated they thought they were having health problems related to exposures to their art materials (37). Other
TABLE 2 BREATHING ZONE SAMPLES AT COOPER UNION SCHOOL OF ART.(37)
Sample description Photo etching Benzene Methyl Cellosolve acetate Bronze Lead Lead Lead
melting No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
Investment molding Total quartz Respirable quartz No. 1 Respirable quartz No. 2
Sampling period (W -b -0
TLV” (mg/m’) 15 (5 mm) ceilingc 120 (25 ppm)
Time-weighted average (mdm’) 112.7(38 ppm) 176.1(37 ppm)
2.4 2.2 2.0
0.15
0.32 0.14 0.13
2.7 3.4 2.7
0.3 0.1
1.70 0.57 0.78
111977 Threshold Limit Values, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. ’ Not given. c Permanent OSHA standard for benzene (38).
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studies also indicated that large numbers of artists thought they were experiencing adverse health effects due to their materials (32, 47). Several case studies and epidemiologic studies have been reported. These include lead poisoning in stained glass workers (15. 16), a fatal heart attack from use of a methylene chloride paint stripper (44), bladder cancer among Japanese silk kimono painters (49), liver damage from plastics resins (25), and death of a weaver from anthrax (14). Other examples known to the author include aplastic anemia in a lithographer, mercury poisoning in a painter, metal fume fever among welders, barium poisoning, lithium poisoning and leukemia in a potter, severe respiratory allergies from users of fiber-reactive dyes, a perforated nasal septum in a leatherworker, cyanide poisoning in a metalworker, and numerous cases of dermatitis, respiratory irritation, and allergies among users of solvents, epoxy resins, dichromates, and exotic woods. Home Studios Home studios present a special hazard to artists and craftspeople that is not found for workers outside the home. Estimates of the number of artists with studios in their home have varied from 56 (47) to 76% (23). Although statistics are not available, it could be postulated that the percentage of women artists with home studios would be higher in the case of married women artists with working spouses. Home studios create several problems. First, there is the possibility of 24-hr exposure to toxic materials that may be contaminating the home. Many artists even work in the kitchen and use kitchen utensils in their work, thus risking the contamination of food. Second, there is the problem of exposing other family members, particularly children who have a much higher susceptibility. One study indicated that 1.8 additional people share the home (47), and another survey showed that 62% of the artists were married with an average of 1.2 children (23). A recent example of the potential hazards involved an l&month-old child who developed lead poisoning. Her parents were both stained glass craftspersons and usually worked in the kitchen with the child around. According to the attending physician, the child had an average lead level of 56 kg/100 g of whole blood, a free erythrocyte protoporphyrin level of 300 pg/lOO ml of red blood cells, and the suggestion of lead lines in the long bones (9). There were no clinical symptoms. The source of the lead was thought to be ingestion of lead came dust or pieces or, possibly, inhalation of lead soldering fumes. There is also some evidence that the risk of exposing children is not restricted to home studios: for example, a potter bringing her infant into a pottery studio where she works. This type of situation is more likely to involve women than men since the role of child care has traditionally fallen to the woman. The above discussion shows that artists and craftspeople have serious occupational health problems due to the effects of toxic chemicals. They are also exposed to a variety of potential health problems such as hearing loss from exposure to excessively noisy pneumatic sculpture tools, woodworking machinery, forging techniques, etc.; eye damage from ultraviolet, infrared, and laser radiations from welding, glassblowing, carbon arcs, metal casting kilns, and lasers; heat stress
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from glassblowing, metal casting, and forging; and accidents from misuse of tools, machinery, etc. The accident rate may also be increased as a result of the intoxicating effects of many solvent vapors. ART HAZARDS AND REPRODUCTION
Many chemicals used in art can also affect the reproductive system. Possible mutagens such as vinyl chloride [Ref. (19), p. C-16; Ref. (43) pp. 158-1591, formerly used as an aerosol propellant in many art products, benzene [Ref. (43), p. 1731:used in paint and varnish removers, and lead [Ref. (19), p. C-71are thought to affect both male and female reproductive systems. Some chemicals have specific effects on the male reproductive system, e.g., cadmium, manganese, and lead [Ref. (43), p. 1731,while others have specific effects on the female reproductive system, e.g., toluene and xylene, which can cause menstrual irregularities [Ref. (19), p. C-201 (22). All of these chemicals are common in art materials. Women, however, have unique problems during pregnancy and breast-feeding. The Art Hazards Information Center has received many inquiries from women artists who are or intend to become pregnant and want to know if they should stop their art work. There are no direct data on how many women artists work during pregnancy, although many women artists have indicated to me that they did. One estimate of the number of women working during pregnancy can be obtained from the data compiled by Stellman [Ref. (43), p. 1411who showed that 82% of college graduate women worked during their first pregnancy, as compared with 59% of all women. Studies have shown that about 75% of artists and craftspeople have at least a college education (13, 23). One study found that 62% were married with an average of 1.2 children (23). These results would suggest that most women artists probably worked at their art during pregnancy. The fact that a majority of artists have home studios would make this even more likely. The hazards to the embryo or fetus from chemicals found in art materials are similar to those found in the workplace. Chemicals and other factors which are thought to cross the placental barrier and possibly cause damage and birth defects include lead, cadmium, mercury, copper, carbon monoxide, dyes, noise, vibration, and many organic solvents [Ref. (19), p. C-20; Ref. (43), pp. 158-1591. The amount of material necessary to damage the fetus or embryo is much smaller than the amount which can injure an adult. Here, as in regular workplace situations, one of the major problems is that the most sensitive time for chemical interference with normal development is from the 18th to the 60th days after conception-before most women know they are pregnant [Ref. (43), p. 1481.In cases of deliberate pregnancy, of course, a woman can make decisions concerning her art work in advance. Pregnant women artists have the same problems as other working pregnant women with respect to personal hazards during the pregnancy. These hazards include materials that can affect the respiratory system, and blood and circulatory system. Examples include solvents, dyes, metals, and toxic dusts and gases, as well as strenuous activity and other stresses [Ref. (43) pp. 171- 1721. The infants of women artists who work at their art during the period they are breast-feeding might be at risk. Most women who work outside the home are not
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likely to work if they are breast-feeding an infant because of the difficulties of feeding schedules and the very young age of the infant. However, women artists with home studios do not have this problem since they do not have to leave the home. Many chemicals-especially heavy metals and solvents-an be found in a woman’s milk several hours after exposure [Ref. (19), p. C-7; Ref. (43), p. 1651. For example, methylene chloride, a solvent found in many paint strippers and other art materials, has been shown to be present in women’s milk up to 17 hrs after exposure has ended [Ref. (19), p. C-201. DIAGNOSIS
OF ILLNESSES
RELATED TO ARTS AND CRAFTS MATERIALS
A serious problem found by this author and others working with artists and craftspeople is that of proper diagnosis of illnesses that might be due to exposure to toxic art materials. Most artists go to physicians who are not aware of the potential hazards of arts and crafts materials and rarely take occupational or hobby histories. There have been instances of art-related illnesses not being diagnosed until several physicians had been consulted, producing, in some instances, hostile reactions on the part of physicians to artists’ suggestions that their illness might be related to their art materials. For women artists, this problem can be enhanced by some of the stereotypes of women in our society. The image of women as being constantly subject to psychosomatic illnesses, neuroses, and hypochondria can lead to easy dismissal of such vague chronic symptoms as fatigue, irritability, headaches, and nausea, especially when there is no readily apparent cause. However, these same vague symptoms can be indications of chronic poisoning by many art materials. One instance of this was recently reported (24). A housewife practicing stained glass as a hobby started to develop symptoms of tightness in her neck and heaviness in her arms. It was diagnosed by her physician as “housewifitis” and he recommended that she should develop some interests. Since she was already involved in stained glass she decided to spend more time at it. Her symptoms became worse and included nausea, abdominal cramps, malaise, headaches, irritability, paresthesia of hands and feet, and weakness in the hands. After visits to several other doctors, this was diagnosed as lead poisoning by a neurologist (16). Clinical tests showed a blood level of 58 pg/lOO g of whole blood, a free erythrocyte protoporphyrin level of 106&lOO ml of red blood cells, and slowed peroneal nerve conduction velocity. This example and similar ones lead to concern that there may be many other cases which go undiagnosed because of lack of knowledge by physicians of the potential hazards of arts and crafts materials used by their patients and because of the stereotypes of women in our society. PREVENTION
There are many precautions that artists and craftspeople can take to make sure that they are working safely with their art materials. (a) Choosy a studio loctrtion cnrqfuliy. Although common, home studios are not recommended unless they can be isolated from living quarters and from contact with children. In particular do not use the kitchen or kitchen utensils because of the real danger of contaminating food. All art materials should be kept out of
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children’s reach. The studio should also be equipped with basic safety measures, such as a source of running water for chemical spills, a first aid kit, a list of emergency numbers, a smoke detector, and a tire extinguisher. (b) Substitute less hazardous materials or techniques whenever possible. Some chemicals should never be used by artists because it is so difficult for artists to adequately protect themselves against the toxic effect of these chemicals. This particularly applies to known and suspect carcinogens, such as benzene, vinyl chloride, asbestos, arsenic compounds, benzidine or benzidine derivative dyes, chromate pigment powders, carbon tetrachloride, and trichloroethylene. It also includes such extremely toxic chemicals as liquid phenol, carbon disulfide, and spray polyurethane foams containing diisocyanates. In most cases there are adequate substitutes. There are many other instances where highly toxic chemicals can be replaced by less toxic materials. For example, aromatic hydrocarbons like toluene and xylene and chlorinated hydrocarbons like methylene chloride and ethylene dichloride should be replaced by less toxic solvents like mineral spirits (odorless paint thinner), acetone, and denatured alcohol whenever possible. In some cases, exposure to toxic solvents can be reduced by diluting them with less toxic solvents. Another example of substitution involves the replacement of sand by silicon carbide in abrasive blasting. Often an artist can change a technique to make it less hazardous. For example, wet grinding techniques can be used instead of dry grinding, ready-made inks and paints can be used instead of starting with the pigment powders, and wet clay can be purchased instead of dry clay. (c) Know the materials and their hazards. Labels often have information describing contents, hazards, and precautions. Unfortunately these labels are often inadequate and in many cases warnings and precautions are nonexistent. Other sources of information are the articles listed in the References, the Art Hazards Information Center, and, in some cases, the manufacturer. (d) Store materials safely. Preferably store hazardous materials in unbreakable plastic or metal containers rather than glass. Do not use soda bottles, milk cartons, etc., which might tempt children or which the artist might consume by accident. Label all materials clearly. Cover all containers when not in use-even if only for a minute. (e) Have proper ventilation. The phrase, “Use with adequate ventilation,” appears on the labels of many materials. Adequate ventilation is not an open window or door for all but the smallest amounts of hazardous materials, and not even then for highly toxic materials. There are two basic types of ventilation: general or dilution ventilation, in which fresh air is brought into the room to dilute the concentration of the hazardous material to a safer level and the air is then exhausted: and local exhaust ventilation which traps the toxic contaminants at their source and exhausts them before the air in the room becomes contaminated. Local exhaust ventilation is preferred because it eliminates exposure to toxic materials. For simple general ventilation, a window exhaust fan may be sufficient. Work as close as possible to the exhaust fan. Make sure there is an adequate supply of replacement air and that the exhausted air cannot reenter. The fan and supply of
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fresh air should be arranged so that fresh air flows past one’s face before being contaminated and exhausted. Examples of local exhaust systems include fume hoods, spray booths, exhaust attachments for grinders and sanders, overhead canopy hoods for kilns and furnaces, and movable exhaust hoods for welding. In cases where local exhaust is not possible and contaminants are highly toxic (e.g., polyester resin casting, spray painting), a combination of an approved respirator and window exhaust fan can be used. (f) Wear appropriate personal protective equipment. There is a variety of personal protective equipment available that can protect artists and craftspeople. These include various types of gloves to protect against cuts, chemicals, heat, molten metal, etc.; goggles and face shields to protect against flying particles, ultraviolet and infrared radiation, chemical splashes, and irritating dusts and vapors; air-purifying respirators to protect against toxic solvent vapors, dusts, paint sprays, metal fumes, and gases; and protective aprons, leggings, helmets, shoes, ear plugs, ear muffs, and whole body suits to protect against a variety of other hazardous conditions that artists may encounter. (g) Handle flammable materials safely. Artists and craftspeople use many flammable materials, including solvents, acetylene, and propane gases for welding and soldering, and flammable dusts. Flammable solvents in quantities exceeding 1 qt should be stored in approved safety containers, and large quantities of flammable solvents should be stored in approved storage cabinets. Smoking, open flames, and sources of sparks or static electricity should be prohibited in areas where flammable materials are stored or used. Ventilation systems in areas using large amounts of flammable solvents should be explosion proof. Flammable solvents or solvent-soaked rags should be disposed of by placing in approved waste disposal cans which are emptied each day. All studios containing flammable materials should have appropriate types of fire extinguishers. Check with local fire departments concerning applicable regulations for storage and use of flammable materials. (h) Clean up carefully. All spills should be cleaned up immediately to prevent accidents or contamination. Liquids should be mopped up with paper towels or the equivalent (wear gloves), dusts should be mopped up with wet paper towels or vacuumed. For very fine dusts like silica, special vacuum cleaners are needed. The wastes should be placed in an approved waste disposal can if flammable or toxic. Dusts should be wet mopped or vacuumed. Sweeping just stirs up the dust. Sweeping compounds may also be used. If chemicals must be poured down the sink (e.g., water solutions, acids, alkalis, water-soluble solvents), make sure they will not adversely affect the environment. Pour them slowly while flushing with plenty of water and do not mix chemicals, since this can cause chemical reactions resulting in fires and toxic gases. Check with local universities, laboratories and schools for disposal of large amounts of toxic materials, since they may have waste-disposal services. (i) Watch out for physical hazards. Loose clothing, untied long hair, ties, necklaces, and beads may present a physical hazard when working with machin-
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ery in which they can become entangled. Do not remove safety guards from equipment. When working with sharp tools, be sure to cut in an outward direction, placing the free hand behind or to the side of the tool. Make sure that all electrical equipment is adequately grounded and that the wiring is adequate for the machine and in good repair. (j) Practice proper personal hygiene precautions. Do not eat, drink, or smoke in the studio because of the hazard of accidental ingestion. Wash off splashes immediately with lots of running water. In case of eye contact, flush eyes for at least 15 min and call a doctor. Wash hands with soap and hot water after work and before eating; if this is not sufficient use a nonalkaline, nonsolvent, nonabrasive waterless hand cleanser and then soap and water. Do not wash hands with solvents. Use of a lanolin-containing hand cream can help replace any lost skin oils. (k) In case ofpregnancy. Whether a pregnant woman should consider stopping her art work during her pregnancy depends on the working environment. Studios with adequate local exhaust systems and other precautions which eliminate the chances of absorption of toxic chemicals by the body could be safe to work in if stringent precautions are carried out. In situations where this is not true, where other people are working with a variety of toxic chemicals, it probably would be impossible to protect the embryo or fetus adequately. Most studios are not equipped to control hazards sufficiently. However, with very careful personal hygiene and cleanup, such techniques as water-based painting, spinning, weaving (except dyeing), and stone and plaster of Paris sculpture would be safe. In situations where a woman depends on an art job for survival, conflicts between safety and economics may arise. In this situation, such factors as a safe workplace, transfer to other jobs during the pregnancy, along with rate retention and no loss of seniority, and paid pregnancy leave become important to the individual. In situations where a woman makes the decision, in advance, to become pregnant, she can make plans concerning her art work. If she intends to stop work, then she should do so from the first moment pregnancy is possible because of the high risks during the first several weeks of pregnancy. In addition, mothers who are breast-feeding their infant should take the same precautions as during the pregnancy itself. (I) What to tell the doctor. If doctors are not told what art materials the artist is working with and their possible hazards, there is no way for the doctor to take this into account when making a diagnosis. Many of the symptoms of poisoning by chemicals are very vague and nonspecific and might mimic other diseases, including flu, hepatitis, psychological problems, fatigue, etc. If necessary, one should ask for a referral to a specialist in occupational health or toxicology. In addition, those working with highly toxic materials like lead, cadmium, silica, etc., should have regular checkups and specific tests to see what effects these materials might be having. These tests can include blood and urine tests, lung function tests, chest X-rays, etc. CONCLUSION
It has become increasingly apparent that many occupations or hobbies traditionally thought to be harmless can be more malevolent than ever imagined. Arts
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and crafts represent a prime example of this. While it was often recognized that accidents from misuse of machinery or tools could ensue, it has only recently been noted that many other materials, such as paints and solvents, could present a risk to the artist, and, particularly, a risk to the pregnant or breast-feeding female. Artists and craftspeople have expressed an increasing interest in learning about the hazards of their occupations and the steps they can take to avoid the potential risks involved. Many of the precautions to be taken are easily instituted, while others present more complex maneuvers. The possibility, however, of a safe and healthy workplace for the artisan is clearly practicable. REFERENCES I. Agoston, G. Health and safety hazards of art materials. Leonardo (Paris) 2, 373-382 (1969). 2. Alexander, W. Ceramic toxicology. Studio Porter (Box 174, Warner, N. H.), p. 35 (Winter 19731 1974). 3. Associated Councils on the Arts. “Americans and the Arts. A Survey of Public Opinion,” p. 23. New York, 1975. 4. Barazani, G. Protecting your health (column). Working Craftsman (Box 42, Northbrook, Ill.) 5. Barazani, G. (Ed.) “Health Hazards in Art Newsletter I, II and III.” Hazards in the Arts, Chicago, 197711978. 6. Barazani, G. “Studio Guide to Safe Practice in the Arts.” College Art Association, New York, to be published. 7. Bond, J. Occupational hazards of stained glass workers. G/ass Ar? 4, 45 (1976). 8. Bingham, E. “Proceedings: Conference on Women and the Workplace.” Society for Occupational and Environmental Health, Washington, D.C., 1977. 9. Brody, S., personal communication. 10. Carnow, B. Health hazards in the arts. Amer. Lang Ass. Bull., 2-7 (January/February, 1976.) 11. Carnow, B. “Health Hazards in the Arts and Crafts.” Hazards in the Arts, Chicago, 1975. 12. Carnow, B. “Health Hazards in the Arts and Crafts.” Wiley, New York, to be published. 13. Craft World. Craft Horizons, 9 (August 1978). 14. Consumer Product Safety Commission. “C.P.S.C. Warns About Possible Anthrax Contamination in Imported Yarn.” Press release, February 9, 1976. 15. Dreggson, A. Lead poisoning. G/ass 5, 13 (1977). 16. Feldman, R., and Sedman, T. Hobbyists working with lead. New Engl. J. Med. 292,929 (1975). 17. Foote, R. Health hazards to commercial artists. Job Safety and Health, 7- 13(November, 1977). 18. Halpern, F., and McCann, M. Health hazards report: Caution with dyes. Craft Horizons, 46-47 (August, 1976). 19. Hricko, A., and Brunt, M. “Working for Your Life: A Woman’s Guide to Job Health Hazards.” Labor Occupational Health Program/Health Research Group, Berkeley, Calif., 1976. 20. Hunt, V. “Occupational Health Problems of Pregnant Women SA-5304-75.” U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1975. 21. Jenkins, C. Textile dyes are potential hazards. J. Environ. Health 40, 256-262 (March/April, 1978). 22. Lange, A., Vermont Health Department, personal communication. 23. Leggieri, P. Economic survey of visual artists. Art Workers News 6, 6-7 (1976). 24. Lovigho, L., Was it just ‘housewititis’-or was it her hobby? CenterScope (Boston Univ. Medical Center), 6 (Spring 1976). 25. Mallary, R. The air of art is poisoned. Art News, 34 (October, 1963). 26. McCann, M. “Art Hazards and Precautions: A Handbook for Artists and CraftSPeoPle.” Watson-Guptill, New York, to be published. 27. McCann, M. Art hazards news (column). Art Workers News (New York). 28. McCann, M. “Health Hazards in the Arts and Crafts.” Presented at 105th Annual Meeting, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., 1977. 29. McCann, M. “Health Hazards Manual for Artists.” Foundation for the Community of Artists, New York, 1975.
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30. McCann, M. Health hazards in printmaking. Prifll Revim No. 4, pp. 20-24. Pratt Graphics Center, New York, (1975). 31. McCann, M. Health hazards in painting. American At&t, 73-78 (February, 1976). 32. McCann, M. Art hazards. Art Workers News, 8 (May, 1976). 33. Moses, C. “Health and Safety in Printmaking: A Manual for Printmakers.” Alberta Labor Occupational Health and Safety Division, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 1978. 34. National Endowment for the Arts. “To Survey American Crafts: A Planning Study.” Research Division, Report No. 2, Washington, D.C., 1977. 35. National Endowment for the Arts. ” Minorities and Women in the Arts: 1970,” Research Division, Report No. 7, Washington, D.C., 1978. 36. National Woman’s Caucus for Art, 59 Castle Howard Court, Princton, N.J.. 37. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. “Health Hazards Evaluation Report No. 75-12-231.” U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1976. 38. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational exposure to benzene, Fed. Reg., 5918-5970 (February 10, 1978). 39. Schott, D., and Banks, 0. Organic vapors in a lithography workshop. Art Workers News, lO(Apri1, 1977). 40. Siedlicki, J. Health hazards of painters and sculptors. JAMA 204, 1176- 1180 (1968). 41. Siedlicki, J. Potential hazards of plastics used in sculpture. Arf Educafion (February, 1972). 42. Siedlicki, J. “The Silent Enemy,” 2nd ed. Artists’ Equity Association, Washington, D.C., 1975. 43. Stellman, J. M. “Women’s Work, Women’s Health: Myths and Realities.” Pantheon, New York, 1977. 44. Stewart, R., and Hake, C. Paint-remover hazard. JAMA 235, 398-401 (1976). 45. Waller, J., and Whitehead, L. Health issues (column). Croft Horizons (New York), 46. Waller, J., and Whitehead, L. (Eds.) “Health Hazards in the Arts: Proceedings of the 1977 Vermont Workshops.” University of Vermont Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, Burlington, 1977. 47. Waller, J., and Whitehead, L., personal communication. 48. Wellborn, S. Health hazards in woodworking. Fine Woodn,orking, pp. 54-57 (Winter 1977). 49. Yoshido, O., and Miyakawa, M. Etiology of bladder cancer: Metabolic aspects, in “Analytical and Experimental Epidemiology of Cancer” (W. Nakahara et ol., Eds.), pp. 3 l-39. University Park Press, Baltimore, Md., 1973. 50. Young, R., Rinsky, R.. Infante, P., and Wagoner, J. Benzene in consumer products. Science 199, 248 (1978).
The Impact
of Hazards MICHAEL
Center for Occupational
Hazards,
in Art on Female Workers MCCANN’ Inc., New York, New York I0005
In the last few years, artists and craftspeople have become concerned about the hazards of arts and crafts materials. Most artists and craftspeople have been working with a wide variety of toxic materials without adequate precautions and usually without even the knowledge that these materials were hazardous. Studies show that 78.5 million people are engaged in arts and crafts, of which at least half a million are professional artists and craftspeople. Of the latter, at least 50% are women. Artists and craftspeople face many of the same occupational health hazards as are found in the more conventional workplace. Since most artists work at home, there are additional risks, such as 24-hr exposures and exposure of other family members. Women artists also face additional hazards to themselves and the embryo during pregnancy and to the infant during breast-feeding. Artists and craftspeople often find it difficult to obtain proper diagnosis of art material-related illnesses. This can be a more serious problem for women who are often stereotyped as subject to psychosomatic illnesses and hypochondria. Finally, the article discusses basic precautions that can be taken by artists and craftspeople to work safely with their materials.
In the last decade, occupational health hazards in industry have generated considerable concern. In recent years, this concern has extended to industries which have not been traditionally considered hazardous, particularly such female-dominated industries as laundries, beauty parlors, housekeeping, service work, dental laboratories, etc. (8, 19, 20,43). The arts and crafts are another such industry which has a large number of women workers and has been ignored by most occupational health professionals. It has become evident that artists and craftspeople have been working with a wide variety of toxic materials without adequate precautions and usually without even the knowledge that the materials were hazardous. There is growing concern among artists and craftspeople about the hazards of their materials and interest in knowing how to work safely with them, which has resulted in a growing body of literature on the health hazards of art materials (1, 2, 4-7, 10-12, 14-18, 21, 24-33,39-42,44-50). This includes articles and columns in many artists’ publications, pamphlets, books, and articles in the scientific and medical literature. The interest in information is also reflected by the growing demand for lectures and workshops on the hazards of art materials and in the hundreds of inquiries received at the Art Hazards Information Center.2 WHO IS AT RISK?
There are few statistics available on the number of people who might be exposed to toxic arts and crafts materials. A 1975 poll commissioned by the As’ Address requests for reprints to: Michael McCann, Ph.D., President, Center for Occupational Hazards, Inc., 56 Pine Street, New York, New York 10005. * The Art Hazards Information Center is a project of the Center for Occupational &z&s, Inc. It is Partially funded by the New York State Council on the Arts, the National Endowment for the Arts, and is the recipient of a National Science Foundation Public Service Science Residency for 1977- 1978. 338 0091-7435/78/0073-0338$02.00/O Copyright 0 1978 by Academic Press. Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
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sociated Council on the Arts (3) found that 39% of the population, representing 56.7 million people, are currently engaged in woodworking, weaving, pottery, ceramics, or other crafts and that 16%, representing 21.8 million people, are currently engaged in painting, drawing or sculpture. This study does not include people under the age of 16. The above figures would include hobbyists, art teachers, and professional artists and craftspeople. Hobbyists would be expected to represent the vast majority, but there is no estimate of how much time they might spend on their arts and crafts. Estimates of the number of professional artists and craftspeople are also available. A study commissioned by the National Endowment for the Arts (34), estimated that there are between 250,000 and 350,000 professional craftspeople in the country, based on estimates of membership in crafts organizations. The National Endowment for the Arts (35) found that 129,000 people listed their occupation as painters or sculptors in the 1970 United States census. This does not include other art areas or people who might have listed themselves under some other category but are also professional artists (e.g., art teachers, housewives). Estimates of the number of female professional artists and craftspeople vary. A 1975 survey by the 37,000-member American Crafts Council found that its membership was 72% women (13). The data from the 1970 census found that 44% of those listing their profession as painters or sculptors were women (35). The National Women’s Caucus for Art has estimated that 50% of recipients of graduate art degrees and 50% of professional artists are women (36). This figure has also been found in other surveys (23, 47). These figures are also reflected in inquiries to the Art Hazards Information Center. Approximately 65% of the inquiries received from artists and craftspeople are from women. Similarly, 75% of the artists responding to a health hazards questionnaire distributed by the Professional Artists Guild were women (32). These statistics show that there is an enormous population of hobbyists who are potentially at risk of exposure to toxic arts and crafts materials. The risk is smallest for the hobbyists because they will tend to spend less time at the hobby than will professional artists and craftspeople and usually will also be working with smaller amounts of materials. However, hobbyists are probably less aware of the hazards of arts and crafts materials than are professional artists and craftspeople, thus increasing the risk of injury due to lack of precautions. Figures also indicate that there is a substantial number of professional artists and craftspeople-possibly greater than one-half million-who are at substantially greater risk. HOW SERIOUS ARE THE HAZARDS?
Contrary to many people’s stereotypes of how artists work, most professional artists and craftspeople usually work regular hours. Partial, preliminary results from a recent study of the Crafts Professionals of Vermont (47) showed that their average work week was 34.1 hr per week, with 46% working 40 or more hr per week. Under these conditions, there can be substantial risk to artists when they are working with toxic materials. Today artists and craftspeople are experimenting with a wide range of materials, many of them highly toxic. Even many of the traditional art materials are toxic (see Table 1) (11, 29, 40, 46).
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TABLE 1 EXAMPLES OF Toxic
ART MATERIALS IN COMMON USE
Dyes and Pigments Lead, cadmium, and other metallic dust and fumes Silica-containing stones and clays Adhesives
Lacquer and paint thinners Paint and varnish removers Cleaning solvents Asbestos Plastics Resins
A few air monitoring surveys have been published which can give an estimate of the seriousness of the problem. A survey of the Cooper Union School of Art in New York by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (37) showed excessive exposures to benzene, methyl Cellosolve acetate, lead, and crystalline silica (see Table 2). A study of paint stripping with a benzenecontaining paint stripper showed an average breathing zone exposure to benzene of 130 ppm over a 25min period (50). This is well above the ceiling of 5 ppm for benzene under the new OSHA standard (38). A survey was undertaken at the University of Maryland after a lithographer at the university developed aplastic anemia (39). Four-hour time-weighted averaged air samples showed that the air in the solvent use area contained 1.9 times the allowable safe concentrations of mineral spirits, turpentine, toluene and xylene; the air in the trash can area contained 10.4 times the allowable safe concentrations of these solvents. Some studies have used questionnaires to evaluate the hazard. In the NIOSH Cooper Union study, 40% of 42 artists interviewed indicated they thought they were having health problems related to exposures to their art materials (37). Other
TABLE 2 BREATHING ZONE SAMPLES AT COOPER UNION SCHOOL OF ART.(37)
Sample description Photo etching Benzene Methyl Cellosolve acetate Bronze Lead Lead Lead
melting No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
Investment molding Total quartz Respirable quartz No. 1 Respirable quartz No. 2
Sampling period (W -b -0
TLV” (mg/m’) 15 (5 mm) ceilingc 120 (25 ppm)
Time-weighted average (mdm’) 112.7(38 ppm) 176.1(37 ppm)
2.4 2.2 2.0
0.15
0.32 0.14 0.13
2.7 3.4 2.7
0.3 0.1
1.70 0.57 0.78
111977 Threshold Limit Values, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. ’ Not given. c Permanent OSHA standard for benzene (38).
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studies also indicated that large numbers of artists thought they were experiencing adverse health effects due to their materials (32, 47). Several case studies and epidemiologic studies have been reported. These include lead poisoning in stained glass workers (15. 16), a fatal heart attack from use of a methylene chloride paint stripper (44), bladder cancer among Japanese silk kimono painters (49), liver damage from plastics resins (25), and death of a weaver from anthrax (14). Other examples known to the author include aplastic anemia in a lithographer, mercury poisoning in a painter, metal fume fever among welders, barium poisoning, lithium poisoning and leukemia in a potter, severe respiratory allergies from users of fiber-reactive dyes, a perforated nasal septum in a leatherworker, cyanide poisoning in a metalworker, and numerous cases of dermatitis, respiratory irritation, and allergies among users of solvents, epoxy resins, dichromates, and exotic woods. Home Studios Home studios present a special hazard to artists and craftspeople that is not found for workers outside the home. Estimates of the number of artists with studios in their home have varied from 56 (47) to 76% (23). Although statistics are not available, it could be postulated that the percentage of women artists with home studios would be higher in the case of married women artists with working spouses. Home studios create several problems. First, there is the possibility of 24-hr exposure to toxic materials that may be contaminating the home. Many artists even work in the kitchen and use kitchen utensils in their work, thus risking the contamination of food. Second, there is the problem of exposing other family members, particularly children who have a much higher susceptibility. One study indicated that 1.8 additional people share the home (47), and another survey showed that 62% of the artists were married with an average of 1.2 children (23). A recent example of the potential hazards involved an l&month-old child who developed lead poisoning. Her parents were both stained glass craftspersons and usually worked in the kitchen with the child around. According to the attending physician, the child had an average lead level of 56 kg/100 g of whole blood, a free erythrocyte protoporphyrin level of 300 pg/lOO ml of red blood cells, and the suggestion of lead lines in the long bones (9). There were no clinical symptoms. The source of the lead was thought to be ingestion of lead came dust or pieces or, possibly, inhalation of lead soldering fumes. There is also some evidence that the risk of exposing children is not restricted to home studios: for example, a potter bringing her infant into a pottery studio where she works. This type of situation is more likely to involve women than men since the role of child care has traditionally fallen to the woman. The above discussion shows that artists and craftspeople have serious occupational health problems due to the effects of toxic chemicals. They are also exposed to a variety of potential health problems such as hearing loss from exposure to excessively noisy pneumatic sculpture tools, woodworking machinery, forging techniques, etc.; eye damage from ultraviolet, infrared, and laser radiations from welding, glassblowing, carbon arcs, metal casting kilns, and lasers; heat stress
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from glassblowing, metal casting, and forging; and accidents from misuse of tools, machinery, etc. The accident rate may also be increased as a result of the intoxicating effects of many solvent vapors. ART HAZARDS AND REPRODUCTION
Many chemicals used in art can also affect the reproductive system. Possible mutagens such as vinyl chloride [Ref. (19), p. C-16; Ref. (43) pp. 158-1591, formerly used as an aerosol propellant in many art products, benzene [Ref. (43), p. 1731:used in paint and varnish removers, and lead [Ref. (19), p. C-71are thought to affect both male and female reproductive systems. Some chemicals have specific effects on the male reproductive system, e.g., cadmium, manganese, and lead [Ref. (43), p. 1731,while others have specific effects on the female reproductive system, e.g., toluene and xylene, which can cause menstrual irregularities [Ref. (19), p. C-201 (22). All of these chemicals are common in art materials. Women, however, have unique problems during pregnancy and breast-feeding. The Art Hazards Information Center has received many inquiries from women artists who are or intend to become pregnant and want to know if they should stop their art work. There are no direct data on how many women artists work during pregnancy, although many women artists have indicated to me that they did. One estimate of the number of women working during pregnancy can be obtained from the data compiled by Stellman [Ref. (43), p. 1411who showed that 82% of college graduate women worked during their first pregnancy, as compared with 59% of all women. Studies have shown that about 75% of artists and craftspeople have at least a college education (13, 23). One study found that 62% were married with an average of 1.2 children (23). These results would suggest that most women artists probably worked at their art during pregnancy. The fact that a majority of artists have home studios would make this even more likely. The hazards to the embryo or fetus from chemicals found in art materials are similar to those found in the workplace. Chemicals and other factors which are thought to cross the placental barrier and possibly cause damage and birth defects include lead, cadmium, mercury, copper, carbon monoxide, dyes, noise, vibration, and many organic solvents [Ref. (19), p. C-20; Ref. (43), pp. 158-1591. The amount of material necessary to damage the fetus or embryo is much smaller than the amount which can injure an adult. Here, as in regular workplace situations, one of the major problems is that the most sensitive time for chemical interference with normal development is from the 18th to the 60th days after conception-before most women know they are pregnant [Ref. (43), p. 1481.In cases of deliberate pregnancy, of course, a woman can make decisions concerning her art work in advance. Pregnant women artists have the same problems as other working pregnant women with respect to personal hazards during the pregnancy. These hazards include materials that can affect the respiratory system, and blood and circulatory system. Examples include solvents, dyes, metals, and toxic dusts and gases, as well as strenuous activity and other stresses [Ref. (43) pp. 171- 1721. The infants of women artists who work at their art during the period they are breast-feeding might be at risk. Most women who work outside the home are not
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likely to work if they are breast-feeding an infant because of the difficulties of feeding schedules and the very young age of the infant. However, women artists with home studios do not have this problem since they do not have to leave the home. Many chemicals-especially heavy metals and solvents-an be found in a woman’s milk several hours after exposure [Ref. (19), p. C-7; Ref. (43), p. 1651. For example, methylene chloride, a solvent found in many paint strippers and other art materials, has been shown to be present in women’s milk up to 17 hrs after exposure has ended [Ref. (19), p. C-201. DIAGNOSIS
OF ILLNESSES
RELATED TO ARTS AND CRAFTS MATERIALS
A serious problem found by this author and others working with artists and craftspeople is that of proper diagnosis of illnesses that might be due to exposure to toxic art materials. Most artists go to physicians who are not aware of the potential hazards of arts and crafts materials and rarely take occupational or hobby histories. There have been instances of art-related illnesses not being diagnosed until several physicians had been consulted, producing, in some instances, hostile reactions on the part of physicians to artists’ suggestions that their illness might be related to their art materials. For women artists, this problem can be enhanced by some of the stereotypes of women in our society. The image of women as being constantly subject to psychosomatic illnesses, neuroses, and hypochondria can lead to easy dismissal of such vague chronic symptoms as fatigue, irritability, headaches, and nausea, especially when there is no readily apparent cause. However, these same vague symptoms can be indications of chronic poisoning by many art materials. One instance of this was recently reported (24). A housewife practicing stained glass as a hobby started to develop symptoms of tightness in her neck and heaviness in her arms. It was diagnosed by her physician as “housewifitis” and he recommended that she should develop some interests. Since she was already involved in stained glass she decided to spend more time at it. Her symptoms became worse and included nausea, abdominal cramps, malaise, headaches, irritability, paresthesia of hands and feet, and weakness in the hands. After visits to several other doctors, this was diagnosed as lead poisoning by a neurologist (16). Clinical tests showed a blood level of 58 pg/lOO g of whole blood, a free erythrocyte protoporphyrin level of 106&lOO ml of red blood cells, and slowed peroneal nerve conduction velocity. This example and similar ones lead to concern that there may be many other cases which go undiagnosed because of lack of knowledge by physicians of the potential hazards of arts and crafts materials used by their patients and because of the stereotypes of women in our society. PREVENTION
There are many precautions that artists and craftspeople can take to make sure that they are working safely with their art materials. (a) Choosy a studio loctrtion cnrqfuliy. Although common, home studios are not recommended unless they can be isolated from living quarters and from contact with children. In particular do not use the kitchen or kitchen utensils because of the real danger of contaminating food. All art materials should be kept out of
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children’s reach. The studio should also be equipped with basic safety measures, such as a source of running water for chemical spills, a first aid kit, a list of emergency numbers, a smoke detector, and a tire extinguisher. (b) Substitute less hazardous materials or techniques whenever possible. Some chemicals should never be used by artists because it is so difficult for artists to adequately protect themselves against the toxic effect of these chemicals. This particularly applies to known and suspect carcinogens, such as benzene, vinyl chloride, asbestos, arsenic compounds, benzidine or benzidine derivative dyes, chromate pigment powders, carbon tetrachloride, and trichloroethylene. It also includes such extremely toxic chemicals as liquid phenol, carbon disulfide, and spray polyurethane foams containing diisocyanates. In most cases there are adequate substitutes. There are many other instances where highly toxic chemicals can be replaced by less toxic materials. For example, aromatic hydrocarbons like toluene and xylene and chlorinated hydrocarbons like methylene chloride and ethylene dichloride should be replaced by less toxic solvents like mineral spirits (odorless paint thinner), acetone, and denatured alcohol whenever possible. In some cases, exposure to toxic solvents can be reduced by diluting them with less toxic solvents. Another example of substitution involves the replacement of sand by silicon carbide in abrasive blasting. Often an artist can change a technique to make it less hazardous. For example, wet grinding techniques can be used instead of dry grinding, ready-made inks and paints can be used instead of starting with the pigment powders, and wet clay can be purchased instead of dry clay. (c) Know the materials and their hazards. Labels often have information describing contents, hazards, and precautions. Unfortunately these labels are often inadequate and in many cases warnings and precautions are nonexistent. Other sources of information are the articles listed in the References, the Art Hazards Information Center, and, in some cases, the manufacturer. (d) Store materials safely. Preferably store hazardous materials in unbreakable plastic or metal containers rather than glass. Do not use soda bottles, milk cartons, etc., which might tempt children or which the artist might consume by accident. Label all materials clearly. Cover all containers when not in use-even if only for a minute. (e) Have proper ventilation. The phrase, “Use with adequate ventilation,” appears on the labels of many materials. Adequate ventilation is not an open window or door for all but the smallest amounts of hazardous materials, and not even then for highly toxic materials. There are two basic types of ventilation: general or dilution ventilation, in which fresh air is brought into the room to dilute the concentration of the hazardous material to a safer level and the air is then exhausted: and local exhaust ventilation which traps the toxic contaminants at their source and exhausts them before the air in the room becomes contaminated. Local exhaust ventilation is preferred because it eliminates exposure to toxic materials. For simple general ventilation, a window exhaust fan may be sufficient. Work as close as possible to the exhaust fan. Make sure there is an adequate supply of replacement air and that the exhausted air cannot reenter. The fan and supply of
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fresh air should be arranged so that fresh air flows past one’s face before being contaminated and exhausted. Examples of local exhaust systems include fume hoods, spray booths, exhaust attachments for grinders and sanders, overhead canopy hoods for kilns and furnaces, and movable exhaust hoods for welding. In cases where local exhaust is not possible and contaminants are highly toxic (e.g., polyester resin casting, spray painting), a combination of an approved respirator and window exhaust fan can be used. (f) Wear appropriate personal protective equipment. There is a variety of personal protective equipment available that can protect artists and craftspeople. These include various types of gloves to protect against cuts, chemicals, heat, molten metal, etc.; goggles and face shields to protect against flying particles, ultraviolet and infrared radiation, chemical splashes, and irritating dusts and vapors; air-purifying respirators to protect against toxic solvent vapors, dusts, paint sprays, metal fumes, and gases; and protective aprons, leggings, helmets, shoes, ear plugs, ear muffs, and whole body suits to protect against a variety of other hazardous conditions that artists may encounter. (g) Handle flammable materials safely. Artists and craftspeople use many flammable materials, including solvents, acetylene, and propane gases for welding and soldering, and flammable dusts. Flammable solvents in quantities exceeding 1 qt should be stored in approved safety containers, and large quantities of flammable solvents should be stored in approved storage cabinets. Smoking, open flames, and sources of sparks or static electricity should be prohibited in areas where flammable materials are stored or used. Ventilation systems in areas using large amounts of flammable solvents should be explosion proof. Flammable solvents or solvent-soaked rags should be disposed of by placing in approved waste disposal cans which are emptied each day. All studios containing flammable materials should have appropriate types of fire extinguishers. Check with local fire departments concerning applicable regulations for storage and use of flammable materials. (h) Clean up carefully. All spills should be cleaned up immediately to prevent accidents or contamination. Liquids should be mopped up with paper towels or the equivalent (wear gloves), dusts should be mopped up with wet paper towels or vacuumed. For very fine dusts like silica, special vacuum cleaners are needed. The wastes should be placed in an approved waste disposal can if flammable or toxic. Dusts should be wet mopped or vacuumed. Sweeping just stirs up the dust. Sweeping compounds may also be used. If chemicals must be poured down the sink (e.g., water solutions, acids, alkalis, water-soluble solvents), make sure they will not adversely affect the environment. Pour them slowly while flushing with plenty of water and do not mix chemicals, since this can cause chemical reactions resulting in fires and toxic gases. Check with local universities, laboratories and schools for disposal of large amounts of toxic materials, since they may have waste-disposal services. (i) Watch out for physical hazards. Loose clothing, untied long hair, ties, necklaces, and beads may present a physical hazard when working with machin-
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ery in which they can become entangled. Do not remove safety guards from equipment. When working with sharp tools, be sure to cut in an outward direction, placing the free hand behind or to the side of the tool. Make sure that all electrical equipment is adequately grounded and that the wiring is adequate for the machine and in good repair. (j) Practice proper personal hygiene precautions. Do not eat, drink, or smoke in the studio because of the hazard of accidental ingestion. Wash off splashes immediately with lots of running water. In case of eye contact, flush eyes for at least 15 min and call a doctor. Wash hands with soap and hot water after work and before eating; if this is not sufficient use a nonalkaline, nonsolvent, nonabrasive waterless hand cleanser and then soap and water. Do not wash hands with solvents. Use of a lanolin-containing hand cream can help replace any lost skin oils. (k) In case ofpregnancy. Whether a pregnant woman should consider stopping her art work during her pregnancy depends on the working environment. Studios with adequate local exhaust systems and other precautions which eliminate the chances of absorption of toxic chemicals by the body could be safe to work in if stringent precautions are carried out. In situations where this is not true, where other people are working with a variety of toxic chemicals, it probably would be impossible to protect the embryo or fetus adequately. Most studios are not equipped to control hazards sufficiently. However, with very careful personal hygiene and cleanup, such techniques as water-based painting, spinning, weaving (except dyeing), and stone and plaster of Paris sculpture would be safe. In situations where a woman depends on an art job for survival, conflicts between safety and economics may arise. In this situation, such factors as a safe workplace, transfer to other jobs during the pregnancy, along with rate retention and no loss of seniority, and paid pregnancy leave become important to the individual. In situations where a woman makes the decision, in advance, to become pregnant, she can make plans concerning her art work. If she intends to stop work, then she should do so from the first moment pregnancy is possible because of the high risks during the first several weeks of pregnancy. In addition, mothers who are breast-feeding their infant should take the same precautions as during the pregnancy itself. (I) What to tell the doctor. If doctors are not told what art materials the artist is working with and their possible hazards, there is no way for the doctor to take this into account when making a diagnosis. Many of the symptoms of poisoning by chemicals are very vague and nonspecific and might mimic other diseases, including flu, hepatitis, psychological problems, fatigue, etc. If necessary, one should ask for a referral to a specialist in occupational health or toxicology. In addition, those working with highly toxic materials like lead, cadmium, silica, etc., should have regular checkups and specific tests to see what effects these materials might be having. These tests can include blood and urine tests, lung function tests, chest X-rays, etc. CONCLUSION
It has become increasingly apparent that many occupations or hobbies traditionally thought to be harmless can be more malevolent than ever imagined. Arts
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and crafts represent a prime example of this. While it was often recognized that accidents from misuse of machinery or tools could ensue, it has only recently been noted that many other materials, such as paints and solvents, could present a risk to the artist, and, particularly, a risk to the pregnant or breast-feeding female. Artists and craftspeople have expressed an increasing interest in learning about the hazards of their occupations and the steps they can take to avoid the potential risks involved. Many of the precautions to be taken are easily instituted, while others present more complex maneuvers. The possibility, however, of a safe and healthy workplace for the artisan is clearly practicable. REFERENCES I. Agoston, G. Health and safety hazards of art materials. Leonardo (Paris) 2, 373-382 (1969). 2. Alexander, W. Ceramic toxicology. Studio Porter (Box 174, Warner, N. H.), p. 35 (Winter 19731 1974). 3. Associated Councils on the Arts. “Americans and the Arts. A Survey of Public Opinion,” p. 23. New York, 1975. 4. Barazani, G. Protecting your health (column). Working Craftsman (Box 42, Northbrook, Ill.) 5. Barazani, G. (Ed.) “Health Hazards in Art Newsletter I, II and III.” Hazards in the Arts, Chicago, 197711978. 6. Barazani, G. “Studio Guide to Safe Practice in the Arts.” College Art Association, New York, to be published. 7. Bond, J. Occupational hazards of stained glass workers. G/ass Ar? 4, 45 (1976). 8. Bingham, E. “Proceedings: Conference on Women and the Workplace.” Society for Occupational and Environmental Health, Washington, D.C., 1977. 9. Brody, S., personal communication. 10. Carnow, B. Health hazards in the arts. Amer. Lang Ass. Bull., 2-7 (January/February, 1976.) 11. Carnow, B. “Health Hazards in the Arts and Crafts.” Hazards in the Arts, Chicago, 1975. 12. Carnow, B. “Health Hazards in the Arts and Crafts.” Wiley, New York, to be published. 13. Craft World. Craft Horizons, 9 (August 1978). 14. Consumer Product Safety Commission. “C.P.S.C. Warns About Possible Anthrax Contamination in Imported Yarn.” Press release, February 9, 1976. 15. Dreggson, A. Lead poisoning. G/ass 5, 13 (1977). 16. Feldman, R., and Sedman, T. Hobbyists working with lead. New Engl. J. Med. 292,929 (1975). 17. Foote, R. Health hazards to commercial artists. Job Safety and Health, 7- 13(November, 1977). 18. Halpern, F., and McCann, M. Health hazards report: Caution with dyes. Craft Horizons, 46-47 (August, 1976). 19. Hricko, A., and Brunt, M. “Working for Your Life: A Woman’s Guide to Job Health Hazards.” Labor Occupational Health Program/Health Research Group, Berkeley, Calif., 1976. 20. Hunt, V. “Occupational Health Problems of Pregnant Women SA-5304-75.” U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1975. 21. Jenkins, C. Textile dyes are potential hazards. J. Environ. Health 40, 256-262 (March/April, 1978). 22. Lange, A., Vermont Health Department, personal communication. 23. Leggieri, P. Economic survey of visual artists. Art Workers News 6, 6-7 (1976). 24. Lovigho, L., Was it just ‘housewititis’-or was it her hobby? CenterScope (Boston Univ. Medical Center), 6 (Spring 1976). 25. Mallary, R. The air of art is poisoned. Art News, 34 (October, 1963). 26. McCann, M. “Art Hazards and Precautions: A Handbook for Artists and CraftSPeoPle.” Watson-Guptill, New York, to be published. 27. McCann, M. Art hazards news (column). Art Workers News (New York). 28. McCann, M. “Health Hazards in the Arts and Crafts.” Presented at 105th Annual Meeting, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., 1977. 29. McCann, M. “Health Hazards Manual for Artists.” Foundation for the Community of Artists, New York, 1975.
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30. McCann, M. Health hazards in printmaking. Prifll Revim No. 4, pp. 20-24. Pratt Graphics Center, New York, (1975). 31. McCann, M. Health hazards in painting. American At&t, 73-78 (February, 1976). 32. McCann, M. Art hazards. Art Workers News, 8 (May, 1976). 33. Moses, C. “Health and Safety in Printmaking: A Manual for Printmakers.” Alberta Labor Occupational Health and Safety Division, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 1978. 34. National Endowment for the Arts. “To Survey American Crafts: A Planning Study.” Research Division, Report No. 2, Washington, D.C., 1977. 35. National Endowment for the Arts. ” Minorities and Women in the Arts: 1970,” Research Division, Report No. 7, Washington, D.C., 1978. 36. National Woman’s Caucus for Art, 59 Castle Howard Court, Princton, N.J.. 37. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. “Health Hazards Evaluation Report No. 75-12-231.” U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1976. 38. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational exposure to benzene, Fed. Reg., 5918-5970 (February 10, 1978). 39. Schott, D., and Banks, 0. Organic vapors in a lithography workshop. Art Workers News, lO(Apri1, 1977). 40. Siedlicki, J. Health hazards of painters and sculptors. JAMA 204, 1176- 1180 (1968). 41. Siedlicki, J. Potential hazards of plastics used in sculpture. Arf Educafion (February, 1972). 42. Siedlicki, J. “The Silent Enemy,” 2nd ed. Artists’ Equity Association, Washington, D.C., 1975. 43. Stellman, J. M. “Women’s Work, Women’s Health: Myths and Realities.” Pantheon, New York, 1977. 44. Stewart, R., and Hake, C. Paint-remover hazard. JAMA 235, 398-401 (1976). 45. Waller, J., and Whitehead, L. Health issues (column). Croft Horizons (New York), 46. Waller, J., and Whitehead, L. (Eds.) “Health Hazards in the Arts: Proceedings of the 1977 Vermont Workshops.” University of Vermont Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, Burlington, 1977. 47. Waller, J., and Whitehead, L., personal communication. 48. Wellborn, S. Health hazards in woodworking. Fine Woodn,orking, pp. 54-57 (Winter 1977). 49. Yoshido, O., and Miyakawa, M. Etiology of bladder cancer: Metabolic aspects, in “Analytical and Experimental Epidemiology of Cancer” (W. Nakahara et ol., Eds.), pp. 3 l-39. University Park Press, Baltimore, Md., 1973. 50. Young, R., Rinsky, R.. Infante, P., and Wagoner, J. Benzene in consumer products. Science 199, 248 (1978).
