Journal of Gerontology 1979, Vol. 34, No. 2, 220-228
The Influence of Stimulus Age and Sex on Person Perception1 Agnes N. O'Connell, PhD,2 and Naomi G. Rotter, PhD3-4
EVIEWS of research investigating attitudes towards aging and perception of older people (Bennett & Eckman, 1973; Me Tavish, 1971) have revealed a prevalence of negative stereotypes. Most studies, however, have dealt primarily with specific issues (e.g., health, economic insecurity, etc.) or have viewed aging as a unidimensional process (Tuckman & Lorge, 1954; 1958). Deviating from this trend, Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) examined aging as a multidimensional process. They constructed a semantic differential scale to examine how men in young, middle and late adulthood were perceived. Factor analysis of their 32 scale items yielded three major descriptive dimensions: '' instrumental-ineffective,'' "autonomousdependent," and "personal acceptabilityunacceptability." Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) depict instrumentality as adaptability, ability to pursue goals, and being in the center of activity. Their college sample saw young men as most instrumental, middle-aged men as less instrumental, and older men as ineffective. In terms of autonomy, the middle-aged man was seen as most autonomous, the older man as least autonomous, and the younger man as being on the brink of the most autonomous stage of his life. The highly autonomous man was portrayed as one who contributes to his social system more than he receives in terms of personal maintenance. Both the younger and middle-aged man were seen as similar and
R
'A part of this research was presented at the 48th Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Boston, April, 1977. 2 Dept. of Psychology, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, NJ 07043. 3 Dept. of Organizational and Social Sciences, New Jersey Inst. of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102. 4 Both authors are senior authors.
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more personally acceptable than the older man. Personal acceptability was characterized as ease in social milieus and maintenance of considerable social interactions. With the exception of autonomy, the stereotypes for males became more negative with age in a linear fashion; the progression for autonomy was curvilinear, with old age more negative than young adulthood. Two other studies which have examined the perception of the aged on a number of variables (Rosen & Jerdee, 1976a, b) have also been restricted to male stimuli and have dealt with specific concerns related to managerial and job-related stereotypes. The findings of these studies indicate that college subjects viewed older employees more negatively than younger employees on the physical, cognitive, and emotional characteristics related to managerial ability (Rosen & Jerdee, 1976b). Older employees were also rated more negatively than younger employees on job-related performance capacity and potential for development, but more positively on stability (Rosen & Jerdee, 1976a). It appears that while negative stereotypes are attributed to older populations, some positive attributions are also made. While the findings of Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) and those of Rosen and Jerdee (1976a, b) argue for a multidimensional approach to the investigation of aging, these studies raise questions concerning sex differences and aging. If we turn for answers to the research dealing with the perceptions of both male and female stimuli, we find that research on sex differences has generally been restricted to ageless stimuli designated as the "typical adult male" and the "typical adult female"
Downloaded from http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Georgetown University on July 29, 2015
College males and females evaluated 25-, 50-, and 75-year-old males and females using a semantic differential. Evaluations became more negative with increasing age of stimulus concept. Males were perceived as more effective and autonomous than females until age 75. Females were perceived as more personally acceptable at all ages. The aging process was perceived as similar for males and females between 25 and 50 but more detrimental to males than to females between 50 and 75. Female Ss evaluated male and female stimulus concepts similarly while male Ss evaluated male stimuli more positively than female stimuli.
THE INFLUENCE OF STIMULUS AGE AND SEX
of male and female subjects differs with the age and sex of the stimulus. The Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) scale was used to explore these age and sex dimensions because, unlike other scales, it includes items which relate to both sexes (e.g., masculine stereotype: aggressive, active, self-reliant, independent; female stereotype: neat, trustful, pleasant, cooperative) and age differences (e.g., progressive, productive, healthy, flexible). METHOD
Subjects. — Subjects were 154 male and 152 female undergraduates attending Montclair State College. Participation was voluntary and anonymous. Materials and procedure. — The Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) version of the semantic differential scale was completed in mixed group sessions. The scale consists of 32 bipolar items which cluster into three factors: effectiveness (instrumental-ineffectiveness, autonomous-dependent, and personal acceptability-unacceptability). Instructions for completion of the semantic differential scale consisted of three versions (25-, 50- or 75-year-old stimulus object) arranged in two different orders (male stimulus object first, female second or female stimulus object first, male second). Different students completed the scale for each stimulus age category: 51 male and 50 female subjects completed version 1 (25-yearold stimuli); 50 male and 50 female subjects completed version 2 (50-year-old stimuli); 53 males and 52 female subjects completed version 3 (75-year-old stimuli). Approximately one-half of the male and one-half of the female subjects for each version completed the scale for the male stimulus object first, the remaining subjects for each version completed the scale for the female stimulus object first. Students were given packets containing written instructions to characterize "an average 25- (or 50 or 75) year-old man (or woman)" on the seven-point scale. After completing their ratings, the subjects were instructed to repeat the procedure for the "average 25- (or 50 or 75) year-old woman (or man)." Finally, each student completed a personal background form and was debriefed.
Downloaded from http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Georgetown University on July 29, 2015
(e.g., Broverman et al., 1970; McKee & Sherriffs, 1957;Rosenkrantzetal., 1968). The body of literature on sex differences does reveal significant differences based on sex of stimulus. The "typical adult male" and the "typical adult female" are seen differentially in our society, and this differential perception has been documented not only in college populations (McKee & Sherriffs, 1957; Rosenkrantz et al., 1968) but also in older populations (Urberg & Labouvie-Vief, 1976) and even in clinically-trained populations consisting of psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers (Broverman et al., 1970). Males and the concomittant stereotypically masculine characteristics (e.g., aggressive, independent, objective, dominant, active, competitive, logical) are more highly valued and are seen as more socially desirable than females and the concomittant stereotypically feminine characteristics (e.g., tactful, gentle, aware of feelings of others, religious, neat, strong need for security) (Broverman et al., 1970; Rosenkrantz et al., 1968). Subjects of both sexes concur in evaluating male stimuli more positively than female stimuli (Rosenkrantz et al., 1968), and female subjects have been found to evaluate male stimuli even more positively than males do (McKee & Sherriffs, 1957). Previous research clearly indicates that aging is perceived as a negative and a multidimensional process (Rosen & Jerdee, 1976a, b; Rosenkrantz & McNevin, 1969) and the perception of stimuli is significantly influenced by sex of stimuli (Broverman et al., 1970; Urberg & Labouvie-Vief, 1976). Yet, previous studies have not systematically examined attitudes toward males and females at different stages of the life cycle. From a theoretical perspective, Sontag (1975) suggests that being old is an ordeal experienced similarly by men and women. However, the process of growing old differs for men and women. The implication is that the process is more detrimental for women than for men. The present study investigates attitudes towards aging as a multidimensional process: first, to determine if different characteristics are attributed to three distinct stages in the life cycle — young adulthood, middle age and old age; second, to ascertain if males and females are perceived in different ways as they advance from young adulthood through middle to old age; and third, to determine if the perception
221
O'CONNELL AND ROTTER
222
RESULTS
Stimulus age and attitudinal dimensions. — Over all 32 items, the main effect of stimulus age was significant (F (2,294) = 83.80,/? < .001). Indeed, this effect accounted for 20% of the variance (Armor & Couch, 1972). The 75-yearold person received significantly more negative evaluations than the 50-year-old (t (203) = 2.833, p < .01) who received more negative evaluations than the 25-year-old (t (199) = 2.429, p < .05). However, increasing age had differential impacts (F (4,588) = 80.933, p < .001) on the various scale dimensions. This significant interaction between stimulus age and attitudinal dimensions supports the proposition that these characteristics are differentially attributed to varying stages of the life cycle. As shown in Fig. 1, effectiveness was seen as decreasing sharply and linearly with age. Significantly (t (199) = 12.539,/? < .001) more effectiveness was attributed to the 25-year-old person than to the 50-year-old person. In turn, the 50-year-old person was judged considerably more effective (/ (203) = 9.130,/? < .001) than the 75-year-old. In contrast to effectiveness, autonomy was not seen as decreasing (t (199) = .226, ns) from age 25 to age 50 but as diminishing significantly (t (203) = 6,484, /?
The Influence of Stimulus Age and Sex on Person Perception1 Agnes N. O'Connell, PhD,2 and Naomi G. Rotter, PhD3-4
EVIEWS of research investigating attitudes towards aging and perception of older people (Bennett & Eckman, 1973; Me Tavish, 1971) have revealed a prevalence of negative stereotypes. Most studies, however, have dealt primarily with specific issues (e.g., health, economic insecurity, etc.) or have viewed aging as a unidimensional process (Tuckman & Lorge, 1954; 1958). Deviating from this trend, Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) examined aging as a multidimensional process. They constructed a semantic differential scale to examine how men in young, middle and late adulthood were perceived. Factor analysis of their 32 scale items yielded three major descriptive dimensions: '' instrumental-ineffective,'' "autonomousdependent," and "personal acceptabilityunacceptability." Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) depict instrumentality as adaptability, ability to pursue goals, and being in the center of activity. Their college sample saw young men as most instrumental, middle-aged men as less instrumental, and older men as ineffective. In terms of autonomy, the middle-aged man was seen as most autonomous, the older man as least autonomous, and the younger man as being on the brink of the most autonomous stage of his life. The highly autonomous man was portrayed as one who contributes to his social system more than he receives in terms of personal maintenance. Both the younger and middle-aged man were seen as similar and
R
'A part of this research was presented at the 48th Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Boston, April, 1977. 2 Dept. of Psychology, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, NJ 07043. 3 Dept. of Organizational and Social Sciences, New Jersey Inst. of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102. 4 Both authors are senior authors.
220
more personally acceptable than the older man. Personal acceptability was characterized as ease in social milieus and maintenance of considerable social interactions. With the exception of autonomy, the stereotypes for males became more negative with age in a linear fashion; the progression for autonomy was curvilinear, with old age more negative than young adulthood. Two other studies which have examined the perception of the aged on a number of variables (Rosen & Jerdee, 1976a, b) have also been restricted to male stimuli and have dealt with specific concerns related to managerial and job-related stereotypes. The findings of these studies indicate that college subjects viewed older employees more negatively than younger employees on the physical, cognitive, and emotional characteristics related to managerial ability (Rosen & Jerdee, 1976b). Older employees were also rated more negatively than younger employees on job-related performance capacity and potential for development, but more positively on stability (Rosen & Jerdee, 1976a). It appears that while negative stereotypes are attributed to older populations, some positive attributions are also made. While the findings of Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) and those of Rosen and Jerdee (1976a, b) argue for a multidimensional approach to the investigation of aging, these studies raise questions concerning sex differences and aging. If we turn for answers to the research dealing with the perceptions of both male and female stimuli, we find that research on sex differences has generally been restricted to ageless stimuli designated as the "typical adult male" and the "typical adult female"
Downloaded from http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Georgetown University on July 29, 2015
College males and females evaluated 25-, 50-, and 75-year-old males and females using a semantic differential. Evaluations became more negative with increasing age of stimulus concept. Males were perceived as more effective and autonomous than females until age 75. Females were perceived as more personally acceptable at all ages. The aging process was perceived as similar for males and females between 25 and 50 but more detrimental to males than to females between 50 and 75. Female Ss evaluated male and female stimulus concepts similarly while male Ss evaluated male stimuli more positively than female stimuli.
THE INFLUENCE OF STIMULUS AGE AND SEX
of male and female subjects differs with the age and sex of the stimulus. The Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) scale was used to explore these age and sex dimensions because, unlike other scales, it includes items which relate to both sexes (e.g., masculine stereotype: aggressive, active, self-reliant, independent; female stereotype: neat, trustful, pleasant, cooperative) and age differences (e.g., progressive, productive, healthy, flexible). METHOD
Subjects. — Subjects were 154 male and 152 female undergraduates attending Montclair State College. Participation was voluntary and anonymous. Materials and procedure. — The Rosencranz and McNevin (1969) version of the semantic differential scale was completed in mixed group sessions. The scale consists of 32 bipolar items which cluster into three factors: effectiveness (instrumental-ineffectiveness, autonomous-dependent, and personal acceptability-unacceptability). Instructions for completion of the semantic differential scale consisted of three versions (25-, 50- or 75-year-old stimulus object) arranged in two different orders (male stimulus object first, female second or female stimulus object first, male second). Different students completed the scale for each stimulus age category: 51 male and 50 female subjects completed version 1 (25-yearold stimuli); 50 male and 50 female subjects completed version 2 (50-year-old stimuli); 53 males and 52 female subjects completed version 3 (75-year-old stimuli). Approximately one-half of the male and one-half of the female subjects for each version completed the scale for the male stimulus object first, the remaining subjects for each version completed the scale for the female stimulus object first. Students were given packets containing written instructions to characterize "an average 25- (or 50 or 75) year-old man (or woman)" on the seven-point scale. After completing their ratings, the subjects were instructed to repeat the procedure for the "average 25- (or 50 or 75) year-old woman (or man)." Finally, each student completed a personal background form and was debriefed.
Downloaded from http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Georgetown University on July 29, 2015
(e.g., Broverman et al., 1970; McKee & Sherriffs, 1957;Rosenkrantzetal., 1968). The body of literature on sex differences does reveal significant differences based on sex of stimulus. The "typical adult male" and the "typical adult female" are seen differentially in our society, and this differential perception has been documented not only in college populations (McKee & Sherriffs, 1957; Rosenkrantz et al., 1968) but also in older populations (Urberg & Labouvie-Vief, 1976) and even in clinically-trained populations consisting of psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers (Broverman et al., 1970). Males and the concomittant stereotypically masculine characteristics (e.g., aggressive, independent, objective, dominant, active, competitive, logical) are more highly valued and are seen as more socially desirable than females and the concomittant stereotypically feminine characteristics (e.g., tactful, gentle, aware of feelings of others, religious, neat, strong need for security) (Broverman et al., 1970; Rosenkrantz et al., 1968). Subjects of both sexes concur in evaluating male stimuli more positively than female stimuli (Rosenkrantz et al., 1968), and female subjects have been found to evaluate male stimuli even more positively than males do (McKee & Sherriffs, 1957). Previous research clearly indicates that aging is perceived as a negative and a multidimensional process (Rosen & Jerdee, 1976a, b; Rosenkrantz & McNevin, 1969) and the perception of stimuli is significantly influenced by sex of stimuli (Broverman et al., 1970; Urberg & Labouvie-Vief, 1976). Yet, previous studies have not systematically examined attitudes toward males and females at different stages of the life cycle. From a theoretical perspective, Sontag (1975) suggests that being old is an ordeal experienced similarly by men and women. However, the process of growing old differs for men and women. The implication is that the process is more detrimental for women than for men. The present study investigates attitudes towards aging as a multidimensional process: first, to determine if different characteristics are attributed to three distinct stages in the life cycle — young adulthood, middle age and old age; second, to ascertain if males and females are perceived in different ways as they advance from young adulthood through middle to old age; and third, to determine if the perception
221
O'CONNELL AND ROTTER
222
RESULTS
Stimulus age and attitudinal dimensions. — Over all 32 items, the main effect of stimulus age was significant (F (2,294) = 83.80,/? < .001). Indeed, this effect accounted for 20% of the variance (Armor & Couch, 1972). The 75-yearold person received significantly more negative evaluations than the 50-year-old (t (203) = 2.833, p < .01) who received more negative evaluations than the 25-year-old (t (199) = 2.429, p < .05). However, increasing age had differential impacts (F (4,588) = 80.933, p < .001) on the various scale dimensions. This significant interaction between stimulus age and attitudinal dimensions supports the proposition that these characteristics are differentially attributed to varying stages of the life cycle. As shown in Fig. 1, effectiveness was seen as decreasing sharply and linearly with age. Significantly (t (199) = 12.539,/? < .001) more effectiveness was attributed to the 25-year-old person than to the 50-year-old person. In turn, the 50-year-old person was judged considerably more effective (/ (203) = 9.130,/? < .001) than the 75-year-old. In contrast to effectiveness, autonomy was not seen as decreasing (t (199) = .226, ns) from age 25 to age 50 but as diminishing significantly (t (203) = 6,484, /?
