Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (I979) vol 6i
The 'Neanderthals' of the College of Surgeons B A Wood
BSC MB BS
PhD
Department of Anatomy, The Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London
Introduction The contents of the Hunterian Museum inevitably reflect the research interests of John Hunter, but successive Conservators have also left their mark on the Collection. Two Conservators, Sir William Flower in the last century and Sir Arthur Keith earlier in this century, were particularly interested in human evolution, and in each of their periods of office items of important fossil evidence for human evolution were added to the Collection. Both of these items, a fossil cranium from Gibraltar during Flower's time and, more recently, a collection of fossil skeletal material from Mount Canmel, Israel, are.in different ways critical evidence of the 'Neanderthal' phase of human evolution.
The Gibraltar cranium The first known report of the Gibraltar cranium is that of the Secretary of the Gibraltar Scientific Society, who, in 1848, reported the discovery of a 'human skull' (Figs i and 2) at Forbe's Quarry, at the north end of the Rock. The cranium (the jaw was never found) was apparently extracted from the solidified rubble forming the cave floor. It is likely that the cranium was discovered by Captain Brome, who was Governor of the Military Prison. Brome was an ardent fossil collector, and I5 years later he discovered and explored a series of later cave deposits in the 'Genista' cave, which lay just outside the prison. The extensive fossil collection from this later cave site came to England in I862, where it engaged the attention of George Busk and Dr Hugh Falconer, who went to inspect the Gibraltar caves at the invitation of the Secretary-at-War, as he was then called. Busk and Falconer used the opportunity to seek more details about the circumstances surrounding the discovery of the original cranium, but they were unsuccessful. Falconer was a wellknown palaeontologist; Busk (Fig. 3) was to become a noted zoologist and palaeontologist,
but until I 855 he was a practising surgeon. In that year he gave up his appointment as Surgeon to the Dreadnought Seamen's Hospital and in i856 became Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology at the Royal College of Surgeons of England. Busk went on to become President of the College in 187I and must surely be the only President to have had his name given to a genus, in this case a genus of small colonial aquatic animals, the Buskia. Professor Busk and Falconer studied the cranium and were convinced that it represented a very archaic form of man; Falconer proposed that it be called Homo calpicus (from Calpe, the ancient name of the Rock
FIG. I Frontal view of the Gibraltar cranium. Although the left side is missing and has been poorly reconstructed in plaster, the rounded profile of the parietal bones is evident. (Copyright British Museum (Natural History)).
386
B A Wood
skulls. The nasal bones and the middle part of the face project forwards and lie beneath well-marked brow ridges.' The anterior -teeth are large and the dental arch is set well forward in the jaws. Despite the 'archaic' features of the skulls, the endocranial capacity is large, and the mean value of 147 0 cm' (range II45-179l5 cm2), when related to the average ~~~4. ~~~~~stature of the 'Neanderthals' of around 5 feet (i. i ), is at least as large as, if not larger than, the mean of most modern human populations. The limb bones of 'Neanderthal' skeletons have thick shafts and large articular surfaces; even the hand phalanges and metacarpals are stout. Particular bony crests on the pubic ramus and exaggerated scapular markings for the teres minor are among consistent, but illunderstood, features of 'Neanderthal' postcranial anatomy. FIG. 2 Lateral view of the Gibraltar cranium. Note the long, low cranium and the projecting nasal region. (Copyright British Museum (Natural History)).
of Gibraltar). However, when he presented it to the meeting of the British Association m Bath in I864' Busk commented on the ways it resembled a specimen found in I 858 at Neanderthal in Germany. The skeleton from Neanderthal was to give its name to a series of distinctive fossil remains which were subsequently discovered at sites in Europe and elsewhere. Neanderthal means the 'valley of Neander' and was named after Joachim Neander, who sought its peace to write hymns. (One of his hymns of thanksgiving, 'Lobe den Herren' ('Praise to the Lord'), has found a place in the English Hymnal.) Thus, though initially unrecognised as such, the Gibraltar cranium was the first evidence of 'Neanderthal' man to be discovered, and it was undoubtedly Busk's influence which led to the presentation of the Gibraltar cranium to the Colege Museum in i868. The cranium shows many of the features which distinguish 'Neanderthal' cranial remains from skulls of the later Upper Palaeolithic peoples of Euope. The skulls are long, with a low- cranial vault. The occipital region bears a rounded projection or 'chignon', and in coronal section the sides of the parietal bones bulge laterally instead of being straight-sided as in modem
"^_ _ _
E
4.
FIG. 3 Photograph of a portrait of George Busk belonging to the Linnean Society, of which he was Secretary for I2 years. Two years after he relinquished this post he was elected President of the Royal College of Sur-geons of England. (Reproduced by courtesy of the Linnean Society.)
The 'Neanderthals' of the College of Surgeons
387
'Neanderthal' man Shanidar cave indicates that there was sufMost of the sites which have yielded 'Nean- ficient communal care to sustain a casualty derthal' remains are dated at between 70 000 until a fractured humerus was healed. and 30 000 years BP, and some of the peculiar In the past 'Neanderthals' have been treated anatomical features of the 'Neanderthals' have as the 'village idiots' of the Middle Palaeolithic; been interpreted as adaptations for living in indeed, a reconstruction in a Chicago museum the harsh climate which prevailed in Europe has been given a stoop and a facial demeanour during the period between 6o ooo and 25 000 we normally associate with severe chromosome years BP. Since about 3 million years ago the abnormality. This popular misconception is climate has become generally cooler, and in due in no small way to a mistaken analysis of the Northern Hemisphere there have been the posture and gait5 of the 'Neanderthal' reiOO ooo-year cycles of more intense cooling; mains from La Chapelle-aux-Saints, but a the 'Neanderthals' were living in such a cool more recent analysis of the material' demonperiod, when massive ice-sheets covered north- strated severe arthritic changes in the cervical ern Europe and reindeer were abundant spine, and a review of anatomically 'normal' in what is now the southern part of France. specimens indicates that the posture of these 'Neanderthal' remains have mostly been found undoubtedly highly muscular people was no in caves, which presumably afforded shelter different from that of modern man. and the opportunity to keep a fire. One of the 'Neanderthal' remains have been found in functional interpretations of the anatomy of Western Western Asia, and the Near the 'Neanderthal' face is that their facial shape East, andEurope, terms there is a tendency in general was a device to reduce the risks of frostbite2 for the fossil material deviate away from and that the large nose served to warm the in- the most extreme form to of 'Neanderthal' morcoming air3; evidence for this hypothesis comes phology the farther the sites are away from from anthropometric studies of Eskimo popu- Western Europe. For example, fossils found that the are lations. Alternative suggestions and Hungary, in Czechoslovakia, facial structure was designed to buttress and Iraq show a mixture of bothIsrael, 'modern' strengthen the insertion of large incisor teeth, and 'Neanderthal' morphology. Indeed, it is which were used to 'hold' leather, wood, and sites in Israel on Mount Carmel, just inland bone while it was being worked; once again from Haifa, which came to provide the second it is studies of extant Eskimo populations of the two important items of fossil evidence which have pointed to this as a possible ex- belonging to the Hunterian Museum. planation. Animal bones associated with 'Neanderthal' The Mount Carmel remains remains indicate that organised hunting was The Wady el-Mughara is one of the many an important part of the subsistence pattern valleys which run westwards from the slopes of these populations, but experts are divided of Mount Carmel to the narrow coastal plain over the problem of whether the 'Neander- of Israel. In the cliff-like valley walls are a thals' had a characteristic stone tool culture. series of caves, and in 1928, when limestone The stone tools most commonly associated was needed for the new harbour at Haifa, the with 'Neanderthal' fossil remains, the so-called caves were threatened by quarrying operaMousterian culture, are small stone scrapers, tions. Several of the caves were known to conknives, and points-the former were used to tain fossil remains, and in I929 a joint British work skins, the knives for butchery, and the -American expedition started what we should latter were probably hafted into wooden now call a 'rescue dig' to explore the cave shafts to make spears. Evidence of deliberate sites. Two of the caves, et-Tabun (the Oven) burials and knowledge of sites where cave and Mugharet es-Skhul (the Cave of the Kids), bear skulls and the frontlets of goat skulls have were found to contain the buried remains of been accumulated and systematically arranged human skeletons. The Director of the Mount suggest that the 'Neanderthals' had a well- Carmel Expedition, Dorothy Garrod, invited developed sense of ritual, and the occurrence an American colleague, Theodore McCown, to of a healed fracture in a skeleton found at the describe and analyse the hominid remains.
388
B A Wood
McCown had been given the task of excavating Mugharet es-Skhul, which, although it was the smallest cave, turned out to be the richest in hominid remains. McCown turned to Sir Arthur Keith, who had been Conservator of the Hunterian Museum since I908, to help and advise him during the analysis of the fossils. In 1930 Keith had visited Palestine as part of a visit to Egypt and the Near East organised by the College, and when in Palestine he was shown the sites at Mount Carmel by Dorothy Garrod. He saw the excavations at first hand and, realising that the valuable fossil bones were encased in the hard rock of the cave floors, he offered facilities at the College for the specimens to be prepared and freed from their matrix. The first massive block containing one of the es-Skhul skeletons arrived in 193I and all the subsequent discoveries were transferred to the College. McCown started work on them himself late in I933, and for nearly three years, to begin with at Lincoln's Inn Fields and later in a specially equipped laboratory at the newly opened Buckston Browne Farm at Downe, McCown and Keith worked on the fossils. The et-Tabun cave yielded at least one partial skeleton (Fig. 4) and isolated bones and teeth, and the esSkhul cave contained the remains of i o skeletons. After the task was completed the hominid material was divided between the Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem, the Peabody Museum at Harvard, and the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England; the College was allotted the skeleton and some isolated bones and teeth from et-Tabun and a partial skeleton from Mugharet esSkhul. In their comprehensive and scholarly report7 on the remains McCown and Keith considered the material from the two caves together but pointed out morphological features of the Mugharet es-Skhul remains which suggested that they were more closely related to modern Homo sapiens; for example, they lack the projecting nasal region seen in etTabun, and the es-Skhul mandibles have a chin, whereas the mandible from et-Tabun does not. Initial assessments of the fauna from the two caves suggested that the hominidbearing strata of et-Tabun were equivalent in age to the es-Skhul cave; now new evidence from radiocarbon dating suggests that et-
Tabun may be around 40 000 years BP and other correlative evidence points to the deposits at es-Skhul being up to I0 000 years later in time8. McCown and Keith originally suggested that the differences between the hominids of et-Tabun and es-Skhul could be changes due to an evolutionary progression, and the new dating evidence makes this an even more likely explanation; however, it is interesting that there are little or no comparable changes in cultural evidence between the two sites. It has been proposed that the 'Neanderthals' were suddenly replaced by more modern-looking populations of Homo sapiens, but the evidence from the Mount Carmel sites suggests that 'in-situ' evolutiom occurred in at least one locality. We do not know whether such local evolution occurred throughout Europe or whether the more moden-looking populations of the Near East moved westwards at the end of the glacial conditions and gradually became the dominant phenotype.
Conclusion The details of human morphological and cultural evolution in Europe over the past i 00 000 years remain an intriguing problem. Evidence
FIG. 4 Lateral view of skull No Ci from the et-Tabun cave. The brow ridges, the prominent face, and the lack of a projecting chin are all 'Neanderthal' features. (Copyright British Museum (Natural History)).
The 'Neanderthals' of the College of Surgeons from other parts of the world suggests that the typical 'Neanderthal' morphology was confined to Europe and its borders, and though it does not explain all, the theory that 'Neanderthals' were a relatively local and 'cold-adapted' population is the most parsimonious one. Though the fossil specimens have now been transferred to the British Museum (Natural History) for study and safe-keeping, it is a fitting tribute to the involvement of the Royal College of Surgeons of England in an important area of research into human morphology that the College should be the ultimate custodian of this collection of important fossil evidence of human evolution. The author would like to thank Susan Abbott, Christopher Stringer, Christopher Sym, the library staff of the Royal College of Surgeons and Linnean
389
Society, and the Army Historical Branch for their help and assistance.
References I
2
3 4 5
Busk, G (I865) Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, p. gI. Koertvelyessy, T (1972) American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 37, i 6i. Shea, B T (I977) American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 47, 289. Brose, D S, and Wolpoff, M H (I97i) American Anthropologist, 73, II56. Boule, M (19II-I3) Annales de pal'ontologie, 6, 109; 7, 2I; 8, I.
6 Straus, W, and Cave, A (I957) Quarterly Review of Biology, 32, 348. 7 McCown, T D, and Keith, A (I939) The Stone Age of Mount Carmel. II: The fossil human remains from the Levalloiso-Mousterian. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 8 Higgs, E S, and Brothwell, D R (I96I) Man, 6i, I38.
The 'Neanderthals' of the College of Surgeons B A Wood
BSC MB BS
PhD
Department of Anatomy, The Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London
Introduction The contents of the Hunterian Museum inevitably reflect the research interests of John Hunter, but successive Conservators have also left their mark on the Collection. Two Conservators, Sir William Flower in the last century and Sir Arthur Keith earlier in this century, were particularly interested in human evolution, and in each of their periods of office items of important fossil evidence for human evolution were added to the Collection. Both of these items, a fossil cranium from Gibraltar during Flower's time and, more recently, a collection of fossil skeletal material from Mount Canmel, Israel, are.in different ways critical evidence of the 'Neanderthal' phase of human evolution.
The Gibraltar cranium The first known report of the Gibraltar cranium is that of the Secretary of the Gibraltar Scientific Society, who, in 1848, reported the discovery of a 'human skull' (Figs i and 2) at Forbe's Quarry, at the north end of the Rock. The cranium (the jaw was never found) was apparently extracted from the solidified rubble forming the cave floor. It is likely that the cranium was discovered by Captain Brome, who was Governor of the Military Prison. Brome was an ardent fossil collector, and I5 years later he discovered and explored a series of later cave deposits in the 'Genista' cave, which lay just outside the prison. The extensive fossil collection from this later cave site came to England in I862, where it engaged the attention of George Busk and Dr Hugh Falconer, who went to inspect the Gibraltar caves at the invitation of the Secretary-at-War, as he was then called. Busk and Falconer used the opportunity to seek more details about the circumstances surrounding the discovery of the original cranium, but they were unsuccessful. Falconer was a wellknown palaeontologist; Busk (Fig. 3) was to become a noted zoologist and palaeontologist,
but until I 855 he was a practising surgeon. In that year he gave up his appointment as Surgeon to the Dreadnought Seamen's Hospital and in i856 became Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology at the Royal College of Surgeons of England. Busk went on to become President of the College in 187I and must surely be the only President to have had his name given to a genus, in this case a genus of small colonial aquatic animals, the Buskia. Professor Busk and Falconer studied the cranium and were convinced that it represented a very archaic form of man; Falconer proposed that it be called Homo calpicus (from Calpe, the ancient name of the Rock
FIG. I Frontal view of the Gibraltar cranium. Although the left side is missing and has been poorly reconstructed in plaster, the rounded profile of the parietal bones is evident. (Copyright British Museum (Natural History)).
386
B A Wood
skulls. The nasal bones and the middle part of the face project forwards and lie beneath well-marked brow ridges.' The anterior -teeth are large and the dental arch is set well forward in the jaws. Despite the 'archaic' features of the skulls, the endocranial capacity is large, and the mean value of 147 0 cm' (range II45-179l5 cm2), when related to the average ~~~4. ~~~~~stature of the 'Neanderthals' of around 5 feet (i. i ), is at least as large as, if not larger than, the mean of most modern human populations. The limb bones of 'Neanderthal' skeletons have thick shafts and large articular surfaces; even the hand phalanges and metacarpals are stout. Particular bony crests on the pubic ramus and exaggerated scapular markings for the teres minor are among consistent, but illunderstood, features of 'Neanderthal' postcranial anatomy. FIG. 2 Lateral view of the Gibraltar cranium. Note the long, low cranium and the projecting nasal region. (Copyright British Museum (Natural History)).
of Gibraltar). However, when he presented it to the meeting of the British Association m Bath in I864' Busk commented on the ways it resembled a specimen found in I 858 at Neanderthal in Germany. The skeleton from Neanderthal was to give its name to a series of distinctive fossil remains which were subsequently discovered at sites in Europe and elsewhere. Neanderthal means the 'valley of Neander' and was named after Joachim Neander, who sought its peace to write hymns. (One of his hymns of thanksgiving, 'Lobe den Herren' ('Praise to the Lord'), has found a place in the English Hymnal.) Thus, though initially unrecognised as such, the Gibraltar cranium was the first evidence of 'Neanderthal' man to be discovered, and it was undoubtedly Busk's influence which led to the presentation of the Gibraltar cranium to the Colege Museum in i868. The cranium shows many of the features which distinguish 'Neanderthal' cranial remains from skulls of the later Upper Palaeolithic peoples of Euope. The skulls are long, with a low- cranial vault. The occipital region bears a rounded projection or 'chignon', and in coronal section the sides of the parietal bones bulge laterally instead of being straight-sided as in modem
"^_ _ _
E
4.
FIG. 3 Photograph of a portrait of George Busk belonging to the Linnean Society, of which he was Secretary for I2 years. Two years after he relinquished this post he was elected President of the Royal College of Sur-geons of England. (Reproduced by courtesy of the Linnean Society.)
The 'Neanderthals' of the College of Surgeons
387
'Neanderthal' man Shanidar cave indicates that there was sufMost of the sites which have yielded 'Nean- ficient communal care to sustain a casualty derthal' remains are dated at between 70 000 until a fractured humerus was healed. and 30 000 years BP, and some of the peculiar In the past 'Neanderthals' have been treated anatomical features of the 'Neanderthals' have as the 'village idiots' of the Middle Palaeolithic; been interpreted as adaptations for living in indeed, a reconstruction in a Chicago museum the harsh climate which prevailed in Europe has been given a stoop and a facial demeanour during the period between 6o ooo and 25 000 we normally associate with severe chromosome years BP. Since about 3 million years ago the abnormality. This popular misconception is climate has become generally cooler, and in due in no small way to a mistaken analysis of the Northern Hemisphere there have been the posture and gait5 of the 'Neanderthal' reiOO ooo-year cycles of more intense cooling; mains from La Chapelle-aux-Saints, but a the 'Neanderthals' were living in such a cool more recent analysis of the material' demonperiod, when massive ice-sheets covered north- strated severe arthritic changes in the cervical ern Europe and reindeer were abundant spine, and a review of anatomically 'normal' in what is now the southern part of France. specimens indicates that the posture of these 'Neanderthal' remains have mostly been found undoubtedly highly muscular people was no in caves, which presumably afforded shelter different from that of modern man. and the opportunity to keep a fire. One of the 'Neanderthal' remains have been found in functional interpretations of the anatomy of Western Western Asia, and the Near the 'Neanderthal' face is that their facial shape East, andEurope, terms there is a tendency in general was a device to reduce the risks of frostbite2 for the fossil material deviate away from and that the large nose served to warm the in- the most extreme form to of 'Neanderthal' morcoming air3; evidence for this hypothesis comes phology the farther the sites are away from from anthropometric studies of Eskimo popu- Western Europe. For example, fossils found that the are lations. Alternative suggestions and Hungary, in Czechoslovakia, facial structure was designed to buttress and Iraq show a mixture of bothIsrael, 'modern' strengthen the insertion of large incisor teeth, and 'Neanderthal' morphology. Indeed, it is which were used to 'hold' leather, wood, and sites in Israel on Mount Carmel, just inland bone while it was being worked; once again from Haifa, which came to provide the second it is studies of extant Eskimo populations of the two important items of fossil evidence which have pointed to this as a possible ex- belonging to the Hunterian Museum. planation. Animal bones associated with 'Neanderthal' The Mount Carmel remains remains indicate that organised hunting was The Wady el-Mughara is one of the many an important part of the subsistence pattern valleys which run westwards from the slopes of these populations, but experts are divided of Mount Carmel to the narrow coastal plain over the problem of whether the 'Neander- of Israel. In the cliff-like valley walls are a thals' had a characteristic stone tool culture. series of caves, and in 1928, when limestone The stone tools most commonly associated was needed for the new harbour at Haifa, the with 'Neanderthal' fossil remains, the so-called caves were threatened by quarrying operaMousterian culture, are small stone scrapers, tions. Several of the caves were known to conknives, and points-the former were used to tain fossil remains, and in I929 a joint British work skins, the knives for butchery, and the -American expedition started what we should latter were probably hafted into wooden now call a 'rescue dig' to explore the cave shafts to make spears. Evidence of deliberate sites. Two of the caves, et-Tabun (the Oven) burials and knowledge of sites where cave and Mugharet es-Skhul (the Cave of the Kids), bear skulls and the frontlets of goat skulls have were found to contain the buried remains of been accumulated and systematically arranged human skeletons. The Director of the Mount suggest that the 'Neanderthals' had a well- Carmel Expedition, Dorothy Garrod, invited developed sense of ritual, and the occurrence an American colleague, Theodore McCown, to of a healed fracture in a skeleton found at the describe and analyse the hominid remains.
388
B A Wood
McCown had been given the task of excavating Mugharet es-Skhul, which, although it was the smallest cave, turned out to be the richest in hominid remains. McCown turned to Sir Arthur Keith, who had been Conservator of the Hunterian Museum since I908, to help and advise him during the analysis of the fossils. In 1930 Keith had visited Palestine as part of a visit to Egypt and the Near East organised by the College, and when in Palestine he was shown the sites at Mount Carmel by Dorothy Garrod. He saw the excavations at first hand and, realising that the valuable fossil bones were encased in the hard rock of the cave floors, he offered facilities at the College for the specimens to be prepared and freed from their matrix. The first massive block containing one of the es-Skhul skeletons arrived in 193I and all the subsequent discoveries were transferred to the College. McCown started work on them himself late in I933, and for nearly three years, to begin with at Lincoln's Inn Fields and later in a specially equipped laboratory at the newly opened Buckston Browne Farm at Downe, McCown and Keith worked on the fossils. The et-Tabun cave yielded at least one partial skeleton (Fig. 4) and isolated bones and teeth, and the esSkhul cave contained the remains of i o skeletons. After the task was completed the hominid material was divided between the Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem, the Peabody Museum at Harvard, and the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England; the College was allotted the skeleton and some isolated bones and teeth from et-Tabun and a partial skeleton from Mugharet esSkhul. In their comprehensive and scholarly report7 on the remains McCown and Keith considered the material from the two caves together but pointed out morphological features of the Mugharet es-Skhul remains which suggested that they were more closely related to modern Homo sapiens; for example, they lack the projecting nasal region seen in etTabun, and the es-Skhul mandibles have a chin, whereas the mandible from et-Tabun does not. Initial assessments of the fauna from the two caves suggested that the hominidbearing strata of et-Tabun were equivalent in age to the es-Skhul cave; now new evidence from radiocarbon dating suggests that et-
Tabun may be around 40 000 years BP and other correlative evidence points to the deposits at es-Skhul being up to I0 000 years later in time8. McCown and Keith originally suggested that the differences between the hominids of et-Tabun and es-Skhul could be changes due to an evolutionary progression, and the new dating evidence makes this an even more likely explanation; however, it is interesting that there are little or no comparable changes in cultural evidence between the two sites. It has been proposed that the 'Neanderthals' were suddenly replaced by more modern-looking populations of Homo sapiens, but the evidence from the Mount Carmel sites suggests that 'in-situ' evolutiom occurred in at least one locality. We do not know whether such local evolution occurred throughout Europe or whether the more moden-looking populations of the Near East moved westwards at the end of the glacial conditions and gradually became the dominant phenotype.
Conclusion The details of human morphological and cultural evolution in Europe over the past i 00 000 years remain an intriguing problem. Evidence
FIG. 4 Lateral view of skull No Ci from the et-Tabun cave. The brow ridges, the prominent face, and the lack of a projecting chin are all 'Neanderthal' features. (Copyright British Museum (Natural History)).
The 'Neanderthals' of the College of Surgeons from other parts of the world suggests that the typical 'Neanderthal' morphology was confined to Europe and its borders, and though it does not explain all, the theory that 'Neanderthals' were a relatively local and 'cold-adapted' population is the most parsimonious one. Though the fossil specimens have now been transferred to the British Museum (Natural History) for study and safe-keeping, it is a fitting tribute to the involvement of the Royal College of Surgeons of England in an important area of research into human morphology that the College should be the ultimate custodian of this collection of important fossil evidence of human evolution. The author would like to thank Susan Abbott, Christopher Stringer, Christopher Sym, the library staff of the Royal College of Surgeons and Linnean
389
Society, and the Army Historical Branch for their help and assistance.
References I
2
3 4 5
Busk, G (I865) Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, p. gI. Koertvelyessy, T (1972) American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 37, i 6i. Shea, B T (I977) American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 47, 289. Brose, D S, and Wolpoff, M H (I97i) American Anthropologist, 73, II56. Boule, M (19II-I3) Annales de pal'ontologie, 6, 109; 7, 2I; 8, I.
6 Straus, W, and Cave, A (I957) Quarterly Review of Biology, 32, 348. 7 McCown, T D, and Keith, A (I939) The Stone Age of Mount Carmel. II: The fossil human remains from the Levalloiso-Mousterian. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 8 Higgs, E S, and Brothwell, D R (I96I) Man, 6i, I38.
