REVIEW URRENT C OPINION
The potential of neutrophil elastase inhibitors as anti-inflammatory therapies Peter A. Henriksen
Purpose of review Therapeutic inhibition of neutrophil-derived elastases holds promise with powerful treatment effects observed in various preclinical models of lung, bowel and skin inflammation and ischaemia-reperfusion injury relevant to myocardial infarction, stroke and transplant medicine. Recent findings This brief review considers recent studies eliciting the complex interaction between neutrophil-derived elastases and endogenous inhibitors that determines elastase-mediated inflammation in humans. Translating results of preclinical studies with neutrophil elastase inhibitors remains challenging. Future clinical studies will harness developments in drug delivery and utilize more specific markers of neutrophil elastase activity to inform on the efficacy of inhibition. A summary of recently published and ongoing clinical trials with synthetic inhibitors sivelestat and AZD9668 and recombinant elafin is provided. Summary Clinical trials with neutrophil elastase inhibitors in lung and cardiovascular disease are ongoing, and future studies will incorporate novel delivery approaches and be directed by specific markers of neutrophilderived elastase activity to target inhibition to the sites of inflammatory tissue injury. Keywords elafin, human neutrophil elastase, secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor, sivelestat
INTRODUCTION Neutrophil-derived elastases are key modulators of inflammatory tissue injury and can be delivered at high concentration to sites of inflammation. Both human neutrophil elastase (HNE) and proteinase 3 are destructive neutrophil elastases with a range of substrates including most components of the extracellular matrix. HNE’s actions impact on cell and tissue function through diverse mechanisms. In addition to matrix degradation, HNE influences cell signalling through cleavage of surface receptors, cytokines and liberation of matrix-derived fragments that possess signalling and chemotactic activity [1]. Epithelial tissues are protected from excessive proteolysis by HNE and other proteases by proteinase inhibitors. These are produced locally at sites of tissue injury and by the liver that generates saturating quantities of a-1 antitrypsin, a serine proteinase inhibitor, in the circulation. Elafin and secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) are members of the four-disulphide core family with anti-HNE activity that exhibit upregulation in response to inflammatory stimuli. They are produced by epithelial cells, neutrophils and
macrophages and form part of a reactive innate immunity-based localized defence limiting neutrophil and HNE inflammatory injury in the lung and skin [2]. By contrast, the capacity of other organs such as the central nervous system, myocardium and arterial wall to absorb neutrophil-mediated inflammation and HNE injury is less developed. A large body of preclinical work has indicated the potential therapeutic effect of inhibiting neutrophil-derived elastases in various models of inflammatory tissue injury including lung disease and ischaemia-reperfusion injury. Successful translation to benefit in clinical trials remains the challenge. Clinical trials augmenting endogenous inhibitors or
Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh and Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Correspondence to Dr Peter A. Henriksen, MB ChB, FRCP, PhD, Consultant Cardiologist, Honorary Senior Lecturer, University of Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK. Tel: +44 131 242 1843; fax: +44 131 537 3070; e-mail: [email protected] Curr Opin Hematol 2014, 21:23–28 DOI:10.1097/MOH.0000000000000001
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KEY POINTS Therapeutic inhibition of neutrophil-derived elastases has demonstrated promising results in preclinical models of inflammatory lung and bowel disease and ischaemia-reperfusion injury. Regulation of neutrophil-derived elastase activity and its interaction with endogenous inhibitors in human inflammatory disease is complex, and translation to positive results in clinical trials remains challenging. Clinical studies in inflammatory lung disease and ischaemia-reperfusion injury are ongoing. Markers of neutrophil elastase activity at the site of inflammatory tissue injury will be used increasingly to inform on the effectiveness of elastase inhibition when interpreting the results of clinical trials.
[4 ]. Immunofluorescence confirmed colocalization of HNE and SLPI within NET structures from stimulated neutrophils in vitro and from the skin of patients with psoriasis. The interaction between SLPI, HNE and chromatin had a stimulatory activity on dendritic cells leading to the production of type I interferon. Intriguingly, this stimulatory activity was independent of SLPI’s HNE neutralizing activity suggesting that NETs may have profound modulatory activity on the interaction between HNE and locally produced inhibitors. Changes in the production or availability of HNE and its inhibitors determines the balance of elastase activity. Patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome exhibit a steady decline in airway content of active elafin measured from bronchoalveolar fluid over 7 days. This resulted at least in part from excessive proteolysis of elafin by extracellular 20S proteasome activity [5 ]. Elafin gene expression was reduced in the mucosa and submucosal intestinal epithelium in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. This corresponded to increased elastolytic activity in culture supernatants from inflamed and noninflamed areas of biopsied colon [6 ]. SLPI concentrations are reduced in the oral fluid from patients with periodontal disease and vaginal mucus from patients with Trichomonas vaginalis infection. Gingival fluid in patients with periodontal disease had correspondingly higher levels of elastase activity although elafin concentrations were not altered [7]. SLPI is susceptible to pathogen-derived proteases, and it is possible that microbial activity leads to changes in the mucosal environment that reduce expression or inactivate SLPI. A similar pattern was observed following experimental rhinovirus inoculation in patients with chronic obstructive airways disease (COAD). Secondary, bacterial infection was common and was associated with increased neutrophil elastase content and reduced SLPI and elafin concentrations [8]. Understanding this interplay between HNE and its inhibitors is crucial to interpreting the results from therapeutic trials. Large animals will provide closer modelling of the complexities of human patho-physiology than rodents for preclinical studies. A pig model of cystic fibrosis has been generated with deletion of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene (CFTR) [9]. The CFTR –/– animals recapitulate many aspects of the disease process in humans. Pig neutrophils parallel responses in human cells with NET formation in response to bacteria and release of elastases that can be inhibited by human antielastases including a1-antitrypsin, providing a platform for therapeutic studies. Outcome measures in studies using neutrophil elastase inibitors should &&
using synthetic small molecule inhibitors of neutrophil-derived elastases are ongoing. Alongside this work, there has been improved understanding of how neutrophil elastase is kept in check by endogenous inhibitors, and how this balance becomes deranged in disease. This has led to recognition of a need to explore novel drug delivery mechanisms and identify measures of neutrophil elastase activity at the site of tissue injury to inform on whether neutrophil elastase inhibitors are reaching their target. This article will review recent developments in the field of therapeutic neutrophil elastase inhibition.
THE HUMAN NEUTROPHIL ELASTASE: ANTIPROTEASE BALANCE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are a major antimicrobial mechanism of neutrophils. Microorganisms are trapped and killed within chromatin structures released from neutrophils containing highly concentrated antimicrobial proteins including HNE and myleloperoxidase. NETs exhibit cytotoxic effects on human cells. An HNE inhibitor was used to reduce elastase activity within NETs, but this inhibition was not associated with reduced NETmediated toxicity in epithelial and endothelial cell cultures [3]. The ability to evade inhibition by endogenous antiproteases is key to the success of neutrophil elastases in the extracellular environment. Greater understanding of NET biology has raised the question of how these HNE-containing structures modulate elastase activity and interaction with inhibitors in the extracellular space. SLPI bound to HNE within NETs was recently found to have distinct signalling activity on dendritic cells 24
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The potential of neutrophil elastase inhibitors Henriksen
include some assessment of neutrophil elastase activity to provide evidence that delivery of inhibitor therapy has resulted in reduced enzymatic activity. Monitoring HNE activity at the site of disease and tissue injury in studies is key. This may be achieved with novel imaging approaches and biomarkers. Fluorescence molecular tomographic imaging was successfully employed to monitor neutrophil elastase cleavage of a near-infrared fluorescence-imaging agent in a mouse model of inflammatory lung injury [10]. Real time noninvasive fluorescent imaging of molecular probe cleavage by elastase was observed in mice exposed to inflammatory injury but not healthy controls. The elastase inhibitor sivelestat attenuated fluorescent signal increase and this correlated with reduced HNE activity in ex-vivo lung sections, providing proof of principle that this approach could be used to monitor organ-level changes in elastase activity in vivo. Circulating HNE is rapidly bound and neutralized by saturating levels of a1-antitrypsin, making direct measurement of elastase activity in the serum challenging. Desmosines are cross-linked peptides liberated following elastase degradation of elastin. Urinary desmosine content provides an indirect measure of HNE activity. More recently, aA-Val360 has emerged as an HNE-specific cleavage product from fibrinogen that can be assayed in the serum [11]. aA-Val360 levels correlated with sputum elastase activity and markers of disease severity including lung function in patients with a1-antitrypsin deficiency. Circulating concentrations of this marker also increased during COAD exacerbations, suggesting that it could be used to monitor dynamic changes in elastase activity associated with changes in the clinical state [12 ]. These techniques to monitor elastase activity will be used increasingly in trials because of doubt surrounding whether exogenously administered neutrophil elastase inhibitors are reaching the active enzyme located in concealed areas such as the neutrophil subcellular space at sites of tissue injury. &
THERAPEUTIC AUGMENTATION AND DELIVERY OF NEUTROPHIL ELASTASE INHIBITORS Administration of recombinant endogenous or synthetic neutrophil elastase inhibitors is a direct approach and has been utilized in preclinical and clinical studies. Systemic administration may fail to achieve effective delivery and constant therapeutic concentrations at sites of tissue injury such as the airway, luminal bowel surface and skin. Chronic nonhealing wounds are characterized by
nonresolving inflammatory activity and high levels of neutrophil-derived elastases and reactive oxygen species. The latter inactivate antiproteases including elafin, SLPI and a-1 antitrypsin. Short 13 amino acid peptide fragments selected from SLPI’s HNE inhibitory domain appeared to be relatively resistant to oxidative inactivation and could be incorporated into hyaluronic acid hydrogels while still retaining some elastase inhibitory activity [13 ]. This system has potential for topical delivery of SLPI in patients with chronic skin ulceration. Layer by layer colloidal microcarriers can be formed by alternating layers of oppositely charged biopolyelectrolytes such as protamine or dextran sulphate-coated calcium carbonate. The multilayers provide transport capacity for study agents and have useful properties, being taken up through cell membranes and providing a vehicle for more sustained release of drug following direct delivery into tissue [14]. Reibetanz et al. demonstrated functional a-1 antitrypsin activity within colloidal microcarriers with inhibitory activity against HNE activity in neutrophil culture. The inhibitory activity was more pronounced following prolonged 21 h incubation of a-1 antitrypsin microcarriers with neutrophils. The mechanism for enhanced HNE inhibition with prolonged incubation was not fully explored, but the authors noted some direct HNE inhibitory activity from the microcarriers and conjectured that microcarrier uptake into neutrophils would allow direct inhibition of HNE within phagolysosomes. Elafin and SLPI have an anti-inflammatory activity through modulation of intracellular signalling pathways [15]. Techniques to augment gene expression of antiproteases are, therefore, attractive. Rabinovitch’s group have demonstrated the extensive protection afforded to mice over-expressing human elafin in various models of neutrophilmediated vascular injury (recently reviewed by Alam et al. 2012 [16 ]). Elafin does not have a murine orthologue, but mice expressing human elafin under the endothelin promoter demonstrate high levels of endothelial expression. A model of ventilator-induced lung disease in newborn infants with high-flow oxygen ventilation in 5-day-old pups resulted in increased lung elastase activity, causing degradation and remodelling of matrix elastin with resulting emphysematous changes [17 ]. These changes were blocked or markedly blunted in elafin-expressing mice, confirming that neutrophil-derived elastase-mediated remodelling of lung elastin contributes to defective lung development in this disease and may be targeted with elastase inhibition. Nuclear factor (erythroid-dervied 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) regulates cellular response to oxidative stress. It also controls SLPI gene expression with
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enhanced Nrf2 activity leading to increased SLPI expression. Sulforaphane is an isothiocyanate found in cruciferous vegetables that augments Nrf2 activity. Ingestion of a broccoli homogenate rich in sulforaphane led to a significant increase in SLPI concentration of nasal lavage fluid from healthy volunteers at 48 h [18]. Whole cell lysates of cultured nasal epithelial cells were further demonstrated to have increased SLPI content following incubation with sulforaphane supplemented medium, and sulforaphane regulation of Nrf2 activity was demonstrated using a gene reporter system. Switching on endogenous gene expression avoids some safety concerns surrounding therapeutic gene delivery. This approach may have a role in augmenting SLPI levels as a preventive measure in patients with chronic airways disease. It is doubtful whether it could achieve the levels of augmentation required to combat acute neutrophilic inflammation. Mice over-expressing elafin are protected from inflammatory bowel disease [19]. Nonpathogenic probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were engineered to express and deliver human elafin in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease [6 ]. Bacteria expressing green fluorescent protein were used to confirm colonization of the intestinal epithelium. Elafin immunostaining demonstrated high levels of expression within the mucosa distant to the luminal location of bacteria, indicating secretion and diffusion away from the bacteria into the tissues. Treatment with elafin-expressing bacteria led to a 60% reduction in elastolytic activity following chemical induction of colitis. This corresponded with reduced markers of epithelial damage and attenuated neutrophil and macrophage recruitment. Coculture of elafin-expressing bacteria with human intestinal epithelial cells blocked the increased permeability and inflammatory cytokine production following treatment with the supernatants from cultured biopsies taken from inflammatory bowel disease patients [6 ]. This anti-inflammatory effect was partly related to direct activity of the bacteria and possibly through an extended anti-inflammatory role of elafin and its inhibition of proinflammatory transcription factors activating protein 1 and nuclear factor-kb. Notwithstanding the regulatory hurdle of containing and controlling LAB expressing elafin, this proof of principle study in mice paves the way for translational clinical studies in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. &&
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CLINICAL STUDIES WITH NEUTROPHIL ELASTASE INHIBITORS Sivelestat sodium hydrate is a small molecular weight specific inhibitor of polymorphonuclear 26
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neutrophil elastase produced as Elaspol by the Ono Pharmaceutical Company (Osaka, Japan). It is available in Japan as a treatment for acute lung injury associated with sepsis and systemic inflammatory response. The largest multinational randomized double-blinded trial did not demonstrate improved survival in sivelestat-treated patients with acute lung injury. A meta-analysis of randomized trials conducted in Japan indicated a reduction in mortality that was not statistically significant (relative risk 0.59, confidence interval 0.28–1.28) [20]. Small clinical trials and retrospective analyses originating from Japan continue to suggest benefit from sivelestat treatment. A retrospective analysis was performed of 70 patients treated with sivelestat as continuous infusion of 0.2 mg/kg per 24 h for a maximum of 14 days compared with 40 untreated patients with similar clinical characteristics. A major weakness was the lack of information pertaining to treatment allocation decisions; however, the sivelestat-treated group had marginally improved survival [21]. A small prospective blinded randomized controlled trial of sivelestat versus isotonic saline placebo in 31 consecutive patients undergoing thoracoscopic oesphagectomy demonstrated improved oxygenation and shortened duration of ventilation (85.6 versus 170.9 h) and intensive care stay (5.4 versus 8.1 days) in the sivelestat-treated group [22]. The treatment effect was associated with trends towards reduced white cell count and C-reactive protein that were significant at 9 days. Sivelestat has shown strong efficacy in reducing markers of tissue injury and systemic inflammation in preclinical models of ischaemia reperfusion injury. Patients undergoing liver resection for hepatic cancer encounter hepatic ischaemia reperfusion injury. Circulating levels of high-mobility group box-1, a protein released by necrotic cells and activated macrophages following ischaemia, were significantly reduced along with interleukin-6 in sivelestat-treated patients undergoing hepatic resection [23]. Similar to most of the eight studies included in the 2010 meta-analysis, the quality of recent clinical studies with sivelestat remains poor. Patient numbers are low, there is frequently no blinding of patients or study physicians, mortality is not reported, and there is a paucity of information on power and the ability to detect treatment differences. Patients with acute lung injury are a heterogeneous group with varied disease mechanisms that need to be accounted for by matching in large multicentre clinical trials. AZD9668 is a fully reversible oral neutrophil elastase inhibitor, and AstraZeneca has recently Volume 21 Number 1 January 2014
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funded two trials with this agent in patients with chronic inflammatory lung disease. Eight hundred and thirty eight patients with COAD were randomized in a proof-of-concept dose finding study to placebo or AZD9668 5, 20 or 60 mg b.i.d. [24 ]. The drug was well tolerated with no significant toxicity. The duration of treatment was relatively short at 3 months, and this may have reduced the ability to observe an impact on structural airway changes and disease-associated decline in airway function. The primary endpoint was prebronchodilator forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV-1), and this together with symptoms and quality of life questionnaires were unchanged in AZD9668-treated patients [24 ]. Similarly, negative results were reported in randomized controlled study examining 615 COAD patients with 60 mg b.i.d. of AZ9668 over a 3-month study period [25 ]. AZD9668 failed to reduce urinary desmosine content (the marker of elastase-mediated elastin turnover), raising the fundamental concern that the treatment was not impacting on neutrophil elastase activity in this patient group. Neutrophil-mediated airway inflammation features more prominently in patients with bronchiectasis and cystic fibrosis. Sputum neutrophil elastase content is higher compared with COAD patients, and short-term studies with neutrophil elastase inhibitors may be expected to have a greater effect. Elborn et al. [26 ] randomized 56 patients with cystic fibrosis to AZD9668 60 mg b.i.d. for 4 weeks. There was no effect on lung function, sputum neutrophil or neutrophil elastase content, but there was a small but statistically significant reduction in urinary desmosine concentration suggesting successful inhibition of neutrophil elastase activity. Stockley et al. [27 ] randomized 38 patients with bronchiectasis to the same AZD9668 treatment regime. Therapeutic levels of study drug were identified in the sputum, and FEV-1 improved by 0.1 l in the AZD9668-treated group (P ¼ 0.006). There were trends indicating improvement in other measures of lung function, sputum weight and sputum neutrophil elastase activity, but confidence intervals were wide in this small patient sample, and contrary to Elborn et al’s findings there was no reduction in urinary desmosine content in AZD9668-treated patients. These early phase studies in bronchiectasis have indicated tolerability and a therapeutic potential for AZD9668. Clinical studies with recombinant elafin (Proteo Biotech AG, Kiel, Germany), an endogenous neutrophil elastase inhibitor, have commenced. A phase II study examining a 200 mg intravenous (i.v.) bolus administered perioperatively in patients &&
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undergoing oesphagectomy for oesphageal cancer has been completed. Press reports from Proteo have indicated a significant reduction in the requirement for postoperative intensive therapy unit stay with 63% of elafin-treated patients being discharged after day 1. The Elafin Myocardial Protection from Ischaemia RepErfusion (EMPIRE Eudra CT 2010-01952758) study is ongoing and will report in 2014. This double-blinded randomized controlled study is examining perioperative elafin administration (200 mg i.v. bolus) in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. The study will examine the protective effect of elafin on myocardial injury quantified by troponin release and postischaemic inflammation during coronary bypass surgery.
CONCLUSION Therapeutic inhibition of neutrophil-derived elastases holds promise with powerful treatment effects observed in various preclinical models of lung, bowel and skin inflammation and ischaemia-reperfusion injury relevant to myocardial infarction, stroke and transplant medicine. The interaction between neutrophil-derived elastases and endogenous inhibitors in inflammatory disease in humans is complex, and translation of preclinical studies remains challenging. Clinical trials in lung and cardiovascular disease are ongoing, and future studies will incorporate novel delivery approaches and be directed by specific markers of neutrophil-derived elastase activity to target inhibition to the sites of inflammatory tissue injury. Acknowledgements P.H. is principal investigator for the Elafin Myocardial Protection from Ischaemia RepErfusion study (EMPIRE Eudra CT 2010-019527-58) funded by the Medical Research Council U.K. and Chest Heart and Stroke, Scotland. Conflicts of interest There are no conflicts of interest.
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING Papers of particular interest, published within the annual period of review, have been highlighted as: & of special interest && of outstanding interest 1. Pham CT. Neutrophil serine proteases: specific regulators of inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol 2006; 6:541–550. 2. Williams SE, Brown TI, Roghanian A, Sallenave JM. SLPI and elafin: one glove, many fingers. Clin Sci (Lond) 2006; 110:21–35. 3. Saffarzadeh M, Juenemann C, Queisser MA. Neutrophil extracellular traps directly induce epithelial and endothelial cell death: a predominant role of histones. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32366.
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Myeloid biology 4. Skrzeczynska-Moncznik J, Wlodarczyk A, Zabieglo K, et al. Secretory leukocyte proteinase inhibitor-competent DNA deposits are potent stimulators of plasmacytoid dendritic cells: implication for psoriasis. J Immunol 2012; 189:1611–1617. This study demonstrated that the interaction of SLPI with HNE and DNA within NETs leads to a stimulatory action on plasmacytoid dendritic cells to produce type I interferon. This stimulatory activity requires active HNE and illustrates the complexity of interactions between HNE and its endogenous inhibitors within the neutrophil subcellular space. 5. Kerrin A, Weldon S, Chung AH, et al. Proteolytic cleavage of elafin by 20S && proteasome may contribute to inflammation in acute lung injury. Thorax 2013; 68:315–321. This article identifies 20S proteosome activity within the extracellular space as being responsible for the degradation of elafin in patients with acute lung injury. This contributes to reduction in bronchoalveolar elafin (but not SLPI) content over 7 days and may contribute to sustained inflammation in these patients. 6. Motta JP, Bermudez-Humaran LG, Deraison C, et al. Food-grade bacteria && expressing elafin protect against inflammation and restore colon homeostasis. Sci Transl Med 2012; 4:158ra144. This proof-of-principle study demonstrated that safe bacteria expressing and secreting human elafin protect mice and reduce neutrophil elastase-mediated inflammation in models of inflammatory bowel disease. The bacteria also protected cultured human intestinal epithelial cells from inflammatory injury indicating a well tolerated and effective method for therapeutic elafin delivery in this disease. 7. Laugisch O, Schacht M, Guentsch A, et al. Periodontal pathogens affect the level of protease inhibitors in gingival crevicular fluid. Mol Oral Microbiol 2012; 27:45–56. 8. Mallia P, Footitt J, Sotero R, et al. Rhinovirus infection induces degradation of antimicrobial peptides and secondary bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186:1117–1124. 9. Brea D, Meurens F, Dubois AV, et al. The pig as a model for investigating the role of neutrophil serine proteases in human inflammatory lung diseases. Biochem J 2012; 447:363–370. 10. Kossodo S, Zhang J, Groves K, et al. Noninvasive in vivo quantification of neutrophil elastase activity in acute experimental mouse lung injury. Int J Mol Imaging 2011; 2011:581406. 11. Carter RI, Mumford RA, Treonze KM, et al. The fibrinogen cleavage product Aa-Val360, a specific marker of neutrophil elastase activity in vivo. Thorax 2011; 66:686–691. 12. Carter RI, Ungurs MJ, Mumford RA, Stockley RA. Aa-Val360: a marker of & neutrophil elastase and COPD disease activity. Eur Respir J 2013; 41:31–38. Validation of Aa-Val360 as a marker of disease severity and acute exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 13. Barros SC, Martins JA, Marcos JC, Cavaco-Paulo A. Influence of secretory & leukocyte protease inhibitor-based peptides on elastase activity and their incorporation in hyaluronic acid hydrogels for chronic wound therapy. Biopolymers 2012; 98:576–590. Development of a topical delivery system harnessing the putative wound healing properties of SLPI-derived peptides. 14. Reibetanz U, Schonberg M, Rathmann S, et al. Inhibition of human neutrophil elastase by alpha1-antitrypsin functionalized colloidal microcarriers. ACS Nano 2012; 6:6325–6336. 15. Moreau T, Baranger K, Dade S, et al. Multifaceted roles of human elafin and secretory leukocyte proteinase inhibitor (SLPI), two serine protease inhibitors of the chelonianin family. Biochimie 2008; 90:284–295. &&
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16. Alam SR, Newby DE, Henriksen PA. Role of the endogenous elastase inhibitor, elafin, in cardiovascular injury: from epithelium to endothelium. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 83:695–704. A review of the substantial preclinical work indicating the therapeutic potential of elafin in cardiovascular disease. 17. Hilgendorff A, Parai K, Ertsey R, et al. Neonatal mice genetically modified to & express the elastase inhibitor elafin are protected against the adverse effects of mechanical ventilation on lung growth. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2012; 303:L215–L227. This group have characterized the elastase-mediated inflammatory effects of high flow oxygen and ventilation in neonates. Mice expressing human elafin within the pulmonary vasculature were protected from excessive elastase activity including elastin breakdown and structural lung abnormality, indicating the utility of elafin in this disease that has no effective treatment. 18. Meyer M, Kesic MJ, Clarke J, et al. Sulforaphane induces SLPI secretion in the nasal mucosa. Respir Med 2013; 107:472–475. 19. Motta JP, Magne L, Descamps D, et al. Modifying the protease, antiprotease pattern by elafin overexpression protects mice from colitis. Gastroenterology 2011; 140:1272–1282. 20. Iwata K, Doi A, Ohji G, et al. Effect of neutrophil elastase inhibitor (sivelestat sodium) in the treatment of acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intern Med 2010; 49:2423–2432. 21. Miyoshi S, Hamada H, Ito R. Usefulness of a selective neutrophil elastase inhibitor, sivelestat, in acute lung injury patients with sepsis. Drug Des Devel Ther 2013; 7:305–316. 22. Makino H, Kunisaki C, Kosaka T, et al. Perioperative use of a neutrophil elastase inhibitor in video-assisted thoracoscopic oesophagectomy for cancer. Br J Surg 2011; 98:975–982. 23. Tsujii S, Okabayashi T, Shiga M, et al. The effect of the neutrophil elastase inhibitor sivelestat on early injury after liver resection. World J Surg 2012; 36:1122–1127. 24. Vogelmeier C, Aquino TO, O’Brien CD, et al. A randomised, placebo&& controlled, dose-finding study of AZD9668, an oral inhibitor of neutrophil elastase, in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease treated with tiotropium. COPD 2012; 9:111–120. The largest multicentre randomized controlled trial examining three doses of AZD9668 and placebo in 838 patients with COAD over a 3-month period. 25. Kuna P, Jenkins M, O’Brien CD, et al. AZD9668, a neutrophil elastase & inhibitor, plus ongoing budesonide/formoterol in patients with COPD. Respir Med 2012; 106:531–539. A further randomized controlled study with AZD9668 in COAD patients recruiting 615 patients to 60 mg b.i.d. dose compared with placebo for a 3-month treatment period. 26. Elborn JS, Perrett J, Forsman-Semb K, et al. Efficacy, safety and effect on & biomarkers of AZD9668 in cystic fibrosis. Eur Respir J 2012; 40:969–976. A randomized controlled study with 56 cystic fibrosis patients examining a 4-week treatment with AZD9668. Outcome measures included lung function, sputum volume, a range of inflammatory markers within the sputum and urinary desmosines. 27. Stockley R, De SA, Gunawardena K, et al. Phase II study of a neutrophil & elastase inhibitor (AZD9668) in patients with bronchiectasis. Respir Med 2013; 107:524–533. A small randomized controlled ‘signal searching’ study examining a 4-week AZD9668 treatment in 38 patients with bronchiectasis. &
Volume 21 Number 1 January 2014
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The potential of neutrophil elastase inhibitors as anti-inflammatory therapies Peter A. Henriksen
Purpose of review Therapeutic inhibition of neutrophil-derived elastases holds promise with powerful treatment effects observed in various preclinical models of lung, bowel and skin inflammation and ischaemia-reperfusion injury relevant to myocardial infarction, stroke and transplant medicine. Recent findings This brief review considers recent studies eliciting the complex interaction between neutrophil-derived elastases and endogenous inhibitors that determines elastase-mediated inflammation in humans. Translating results of preclinical studies with neutrophil elastase inhibitors remains challenging. Future clinical studies will harness developments in drug delivery and utilize more specific markers of neutrophil elastase activity to inform on the efficacy of inhibition. A summary of recently published and ongoing clinical trials with synthetic inhibitors sivelestat and AZD9668 and recombinant elafin is provided. Summary Clinical trials with neutrophil elastase inhibitors in lung and cardiovascular disease are ongoing, and future studies will incorporate novel delivery approaches and be directed by specific markers of neutrophilderived elastase activity to target inhibition to the sites of inflammatory tissue injury. Keywords elafin, human neutrophil elastase, secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor, sivelestat
INTRODUCTION Neutrophil-derived elastases are key modulators of inflammatory tissue injury and can be delivered at high concentration to sites of inflammation. Both human neutrophil elastase (HNE) and proteinase 3 are destructive neutrophil elastases with a range of substrates including most components of the extracellular matrix. HNE’s actions impact on cell and tissue function through diverse mechanisms. In addition to matrix degradation, HNE influences cell signalling through cleavage of surface receptors, cytokines and liberation of matrix-derived fragments that possess signalling and chemotactic activity [1]. Epithelial tissues are protected from excessive proteolysis by HNE and other proteases by proteinase inhibitors. These are produced locally at sites of tissue injury and by the liver that generates saturating quantities of a-1 antitrypsin, a serine proteinase inhibitor, in the circulation. Elafin and secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) are members of the four-disulphide core family with anti-HNE activity that exhibit upregulation in response to inflammatory stimuli. They are produced by epithelial cells, neutrophils and
macrophages and form part of a reactive innate immunity-based localized defence limiting neutrophil and HNE inflammatory injury in the lung and skin [2]. By contrast, the capacity of other organs such as the central nervous system, myocardium and arterial wall to absorb neutrophil-mediated inflammation and HNE injury is less developed. A large body of preclinical work has indicated the potential therapeutic effect of inhibiting neutrophil-derived elastases in various models of inflammatory tissue injury including lung disease and ischaemia-reperfusion injury. Successful translation to benefit in clinical trials remains the challenge. Clinical trials augmenting endogenous inhibitors or
Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh and Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Correspondence to Dr Peter A. Henriksen, MB ChB, FRCP, PhD, Consultant Cardiologist, Honorary Senior Lecturer, University of Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK. Tel: +44 131 242 1843; fax: +44 131 537 3070; e-mail: [email protected] Curr Opin Hematol 2014, 21:23–28 DOI:10.1097/MOH.0000000000000001
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Myeloid biology &&
KEY POINTS Therapeutic inhibition of neutrophil-derived elastases has demonstrated promising results in preclinical models of inflammatory lung and bowel disease and ischaemia-reperfusion injury. Regulation of neutrophil-derived elastase activity and its interaction with endogenous inhibitors in human inflammatory disease is complex, and translation to positive results in clinical trials remains challenging. Clinical studies in inflammatory lung disease and ischaemia-reperfusion injury are ongoing. Markers of neutrophil elastase activity at the site of inflammatory tissue injury will be used increasingly to inform on the effectiveness of elastase inhibition when interpreting the results of clinical trials.
[4 ]. Immunofluorescence confirmed colocalization of HNE and SLPI within NET structures from stimulated neutrophils in vitro and from the skin of patients with psoriasis. The interaction between SLPI, HNE and chromatin had a stimulatory activity on dendritic cells leading to the production of type I interferon. Intriguingly, this stimulatory activity was independent of SLPI’s HNE neutralizing activity suggesting that NETs may have profound modulatory activity on the interaction between HNE and locally produced inhibitors. Changes in the production or availability of HNE and its inhibitors determines the balance of elastase activity. Patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome exhibit a steady decline in airway content of active elafin measured from bronchoalveolar fluid over 7 days. This resulted at least in part from excessive proteolysis of elafin by extracellular 20S proteasome activity [5 ]. Elafin gene expression was reduced in the mucosa and submucosal intestinal epithelium in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. This corresponded to increased elastolytic activity in culture supernatants from inflamed and noninflamed areas of biopsied colon [6 ]. SLPI concentrations are reduced in the oral fluid from patients with periodontal disease and vaginal mucus from patients with Trichomonas vaginalis infection. Gingival fluid in patients with periodontal disease had correspondingly higher levels of elastase activity although elafin concentrations were not altered [7]. SLPI is susceptible to pathogen-derived proteases, and it is possible that microbial activity leads to changes in the mucosal environment that reduce expression or inactivate SLPI. A similar pattern was observed following experimental rhinovirus inoculation in patients with chronic obstructive airways disease (COAD). Secondary, bacterial infection was common and was associated with increased neutrophil elastase content and reduced SLPI and elafin concentrations [8]. Understanding this interplay between HNE and its inhibitors is crucial to interpreting the results from therapeutic trials. Large animals will provide closer modelling of the complexities of human patho-physiology than rodents for preclinical studies. A pig model of cystic fibrosis has been generated with deletion of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene (CFTR) [9]. The CFTR –/– animals recapitulate many aspects of the disease process in humans. Pig neutrophils parallel responses in human cells with NET formation in response to bacteria and release of elastases that can be inhibited by human antielastases including a1-antitrypsin, providing a platform for therapeutic studies. Outcome measures in studies using neutrophil elastase inibitors should &&
using synthetic small molecule inhibitors of neutrophil-derived elastases are ongoing. Alongside this work, there has been improved understanding of how neutrophil elastase is kept in check by endogenous inhibitors, and how this balance becomes deranged in disease. This has led to recognition of a need to explore novel drug delivery mechanisms and identify measures of neutrophil elastase activity at the site of tissue injury to inform on whether neutrophil elastase inhibitors are reaching their target. This article will review recent developments in the field of therapeutic neutrophil elastase inhibition.
THE HUMAN NEUTROPHIL ELASTASE: ANTIPROTEASE BALANCE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are a major antimicrobial mechanism of neutrophils. Microorganisms are trapped and killed within chromatin structures released from neutrophils containing highly concentrated antimicrobial proteins including HNE and myleloperoxidase. NETs exhibit cytotoxic effects on human cells. An HNE inhibitor was used to reduce elastase activity within NETs, but this inhibition was not associated with reduced NETmediated toxicity in epithelial and endothelial cell cultures [3]. The ability to evade inhibition by endogenous antiproteases is key to the success of neutrophil elastases in the extracellular environment. Greater understanding of NET biology has raised the question of how these HNE-containing structures modulate elastase activity and interaction with inhibitors in the extracellular space. SLPI bound to HNE within NETs was recently found to have distinct signalling activity on dendritic cells 24
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The potential of neutrophil elastase inhibitors Henriksen
include some assessment of neutrophil elastase activity to provide evidence that delivery of inhibitor therapy has resulted in reduced enzymatic activity. Monitoring HNE activity at the site of disease and tissue injury in studies is key. This may be achieved with novel imaging approaches and biomarkers. Fluorescence molecular tomographic imaging was successfully employed to monitor neutrophil elastase cleavage of a near-infrared fluorescence-imaging agent in a mouse model of inflammatory lung injury [10]. Real time noninvasive fluorescent imaging of molecular probe cleavage by elastase was observed in mice exposed to inflammatory injury but not healthy controls. The elastase inhibitor sivelestat attenuated fluorescent signal increase and this correlated with reduced HNE activity in ex-vivo lung sections, providing proof of principle that this approach could be used to monitor organ-level changes in elastase activity in vivo. Circulating HNE is rapidly bound and neutralized by saturating levels of a1-antitrypsin, making direct measurement of elastase activity in the serum challenging. Desmosines are cross-linked peptides liberated following elastase degradation of elastin. Urinary desmosine content provides an indirect measure of HNE activity. More recently, aA-Val360 has emerged as an HNE-specific cleavage product from fibrinogen that can be assayed in the serum [11]. aA-Val360 levels correlated with sputum elastase activity and markers of disease severity including lung function in patients with a1-antitrypsin deficiency. Circulating concentrations of this marker also increased during COAD exacerbations, suggesting that it could be used to monitor dynamic changes in elastase activity associated with changes in the clinical state [12 ]. These techniques to monitor elastase activity will be used increasingly in trials because of doubt surrounding whether exogenously administered neutrophil elastase inhibitors are reaching the active enzyme located in concealed areas such as the neutrophil subcellular space at sites of tissue injury. &
THERAPEUTIC AUGMENTATION AND DELIVERY OF NEUTROPHIL ELASTASE INHIBITORS Administration of recombinant endogenous or synthetic neutrophil elastase inhibitors is a direct approach and has been utilized in preclinical and clinical studies. Systemic administration may fail to achieve effective delivery and constant therapeutic concentrations at sites of tissue injury such as the airway, luminal bowel surface and skin. Chronic nonhealing wounds are characterized by
nonresolving inflammatory activity and high levels of neutrophil-derived elastases and reactive oxygen species. The latter inactivate antiproteases including elafin, SLPI and a-1 antitrypsin. Short 13 amino acid peptide fragments selected from SLPI’s HNE inhibitory domain appeared to be relatively resistant to oxidative inactivation and could be incorporated into hyaluronic acid hydrogels while still retaining some elastase inhibitory activity [13 ]. This system has potential for topical delivery of SLPI in patients with chronic skin ulceration. Layer by layer colloidal microcarriers can be formed by alternating layers of oppositely charged biopolyelectrolytes such as protamine or dextran sulphate-coated calcium carbonate. The multilayers provide transport capacity for study agents and have useful properties, being taken up through cell membranes and providing a vehicle for more sustained release of drug following direct delivery into tissue [14]. Reibetanz et al. demonstrated functional a-1 antitrypsin activity within colloidal microcarriers with inhibitory activity against HNE activity in neutrophil culture. The inhibitory activity was more pronounced following prolonged 21 h incubation of a-1 antitrypsin microcarriers with neutrophils. The mechanism for enhanced HNE inhibition with prolonged incubation was not fully explored, but the authors noted some direct HNE inhibitory activity from the microcarriers and conjectured that microcarrier uptake into neutrophils would allow direct inhibition of HNE within phagolysosomes. Elafin and SLPI have an anti-inflammatory activity through modulation of intracellular signalling pathways [15]. Techniques to augment gene expression of antiproteases are, therefore, attractive. Rabinovitch’s group have demonstrated the extensive protection afforded to mice over-expressing human elafin in various models of neutrophilmediated vascular injury (recently reviewed by Alam et al. 2012 [16 ]). Elafin does not have a murine orthologue, but mice expressing human elafin under the endothelin promoter demonstrate high levels of endothelial expression. A model of ventilator-induced lung disease in newborn infants with high-flow oxygen ventilation in 5-day-old pups resulted in increased lung elastase activity, causing degradation and remodelling of matrix elastin with resulting emphysematous changes [17 ]. These changes were blocked or markedly blunted in elafin-expressing mice, confirming that neutrophil-derived elastase-mediated remodelling of lung elastin contributes to defective lung development in this disease and may be targeted with elastase inhibition. Nuclear factor (erythroid-dervied 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) regulates cellular response to oxidative stress. It also controls SLPI gene expression with
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Myeloid biology
enhanced Nrf2 activity leading to increased SLPI expression. Sulforaphane is an isothiocyanate found in cruciferous vegetables that augments Nrf2 activity. Ingestion of a broccoli homogenate rich in sulforaphane led to a significant increase in SLPI concentration of nasal lavage fluid from healthy volunteers at 48 h [18]. Whole cell lysates of cultured nasal epithelial cells were further demonstrated to have increased SLPI content following incubation with sulforaphane supplemented medium, and sulforaphane regulation of Nrf2 activity was demonstrated using a gene reporter system. Switching on endogenous gene expression avoids some safety concerns surrounding therapeutic gene delivery. This approach may have a role in augmenting SLPI levels as a preventive measure in patients with chronic airways disease. It is doubtful whether it could achieve the levels of augmentation required to combat acute neutrophilic inflammation. Mice over-expressing elafin are protected from inflammatory bowel disease [19]. Nonpathogenic probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were engineered to express and deliver human elafin in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease [6 ]. Bacteria expressing green fluorescent protein were used to confirm colonization of the intestinal epithelium. Elafin immunostaining demonstrated high levels of expression within the mucosa distant to the luminal location of bacteria, indicating secretion and diffusion away from the bacteria into the tissues. Treatment with elafin-expressing bacteria led to a 60% reduction in elastolytic activity following chemical induction of colitis. This corresponded with reduced markers of epithelial damage and attenuated neutrophil and macrophage recruitment. Coculture of elafin-expressing bacteria with human intestinal epithelial cells blocked the increased permeability and inflammatory cytokine production following treatment with the supernatants from cultured biopsies taken from inflammatory bowel disease patients [6 ]. This anti-inflammatory effect was partly related to direct activity of the bacteria and possibly through an extended anti-inflammatory role of elafin and its inhibition of proinflammatory transcription factors activating protein 1 and nuclear factor-kb. Notwithstanding the regulatory hurdle of containing and controlling LAB expressing elafin, this proof of principle study in mice paves the way for translational clinical studies in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. &&
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CLINICAL STUDIES WITH NEUTROPHIL ELASTASE INHIBITORS Sivelestat sodium hydrate is a small molecular weight specific inhibitor of polymorphonuclear 26
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neutrophil elastase produced as Elaspol by the Ono Pharmaceutical Company (Osaka, Japan). It is available in Japan as a treatment for acute lung injury associated with sepsis and systemic inflammatory response. The largest multinational randomized double-blinded trial did not demonstrate improved survival in sivelestat-treated patients with acute lung injury. A meta-analysis of randomized trials conducted in Japan indicated a reduction in mortality that was not statistically significant (relative risk 0.59, confidence interval 0.28–1.28) [20]. Small clinical trials and retrospective analyses originating from Japan continue to suggest benefit from sivelestat treatment. A retrospective analysis was performed of 70 patients treated with sivelestat as continuous infusion of 0.2 mg/kg per 24 h for a maximum of 14 days compared with 40 untreated patients with similar clinical characteristics. A major weakness was the lack of information pertaining to treatment allocation decisions; however, the sivelestat-treated group had marginally improved survival [21]. A small prospective blinded randomized controlled trial of sivelestat versus isotonic saline placebo in 31 consecutive patients undergoing thoracoscopic oesphagectomy demonstrated improved oxygenation and shortened duration of ventilation (85.6 versus 170.9 h) and intensive care stay (5.4 versus 8.1 days) in the sivelestat-treated group [22]. The treatment effect was associated with trends towards reduced white cell count and C-reactive protein that were significant at 9 days. Sivelestat has shown strong efficacy in reducing markers of tissue injury and systemic inflammation in preclinical models of ischaemia reperfusion injury. Patients undergoing liver resection for hepatic cancer encounter hepatic ischaemia reperfusion injury. Circulating levels of high-mobility group box-1, a protein released by necrotic cells and activated macrophages following ischaemia, were significantly reduced along with interleukin-6 in sivelestat-treated patients undergoing hepatic resection [23]. Similar to most of the eight studies included in the 2010 meta-analysis, the quality of recent clinical studies with sivelestat remains poor. Patient numbers are low, there is frequently no blinding of patients or study physicians, mortality is not reported, and there is a paucity of information on power and the ability to detect treatment differences. Patients with acute lung injury are a heterogeneous group with varied disease mechanisms that need to be accounted for by matching in large multicentre clinical trials. AZD9668 is a fully reversible oral neutrophil elastase inhibitor, and AstraZeneca has recently Volume 21 Number 1 January 2014
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funded two trials with this agent in patients with chronic inflammatory lung disease. Eight hundred and thirty eight patients with COAD were randomized in a proof-of-concept dose finding study to placebo or AZD9668 5, 20 or 60 mg b.i.d. [24 ]. The drug was well tolerated with no significant toxicity. The duration of treatment was relatively short at 3 months, and this may have reduced the ability to observe an impact on structural airway changes and disease-associated decline in airway function. The primary endpoint was prebronchodilator forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV-1), and this together with symptoms and quality of life questionnaires were unchanged in AZD9668-treated patients [24 ]. Similarly, negative results were reported in randomized controlled study examining 615 COAD patients with 60 mg b.i.d. of AZ9668 over a 3-month study period [25 ]. AZD9668 failed to reduce urinary desmosine content (the marker of elastase-mediated elastin turnover), raising the fundamental concern that the treatment was not impacting on neutrophil elastase activity in this patient group. Neutrophil-mediated airway inflammation features more prominently in patients with bronchiectasis and cystic fibrosis. Sputum neutrophil elastase content is higher compared with COAD patients, and short-term studies with neutrophil elastase inhibitors may be expected to have a greater effect. Elborn et al. [26 ] randomized 56 patients with cystic fibrosis to AZD9668 60 mg b.i.d. for 4 weeks. There was no effect on lung function, sputum neutrophil or neutrophil elastase content, but there was a small but statistically significant reduction in urinary desmosine concentration suggesting successful inhibition of neutrophil elastase activity. Stockley et al. [27 ] randomized 38 patients with bronchiectasis to the same AZD9668 treatment regime. Therapeutic levels of study drug were identified in the sputum, and FEV-1 improved by 0.1 l in the AZD9668-treated group (P ¼ 0.006). There were trends indicating improvement in other measures of lung function, sputum weight and sputum neutrophil elastase activity, but confidence intervals were wide in this small patient sample, and contrary to Elborn et al’s findings there was no reduction in urinary desmosine content in AZD9668-treated patients. These early phase studies in bronchiectasis have indicated tolerability and a therapeutic potential for AZD9668. Clinical studies with recombinant elafin (Proteo Biotech AG, Kiel, Germany), an endogenous neutrophil elastase inhibitor, have commenced. A phase II study examining a 200 mg intravenous (i.v.) bolus administered perioperatively in patients &&
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undergoing oesphagectomy for oesphageal cancer has been completed. Press reports from Proteo have indicated a significant reduction in the requirement for postoperative intensive therapy unit stay with 63% of elafin-treated patients being discharged after day 1. The Elafin Myocardial Protection from Ischaemia RepErfusion (EMPIRE Eudra CT 2010-01952758) study is ongoing and will report in 2014. This double-blinded randomized controlled study is examining perioperative elafin administration (200 mg i.v. bolus) in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. The study will examine the protective effect of elafin on myocardial injury quantified by troponin release and postischaemic inflammation during coronary bypass surgery.
CONCLUSION Therapeutic inhibition of neutrophil-derived elastases holds promise with powerful treatment effects observed in various preclinical models of lung, bowel and skin inflammation and ischaemia-reperfusion injury relevant to myocardial infarction, stroke and transplant medicine. The interaction between neutrophil-derived elastases and endogenous inhibitors in inflammatory disease in humans is complex, and translation of preclinical studies remains challenging. Clinical trials in lung and cardiovascular disease are ongoing, and future studies will incorporate novel delivery approaches and be directed by specific markers of neutrophil-derived elastase activity to target inhibition to the sites of inflammatory tissue injury. Acknowledgements P.H. is principal investigator for the Elafin Myocardial Protection from Ischaemia RepErfusion study (EMPIRE Eudra CT 2010-019527-58) funded by the Medical Research Council U.K. and Chest Heart and Stroke, Scotland. Conflicts of interest There are no conflicts of interest.
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING Papers of particular interest, published within the annual period of review, have been highlighted as: & of special interest && of outstanding interest 1. Pham CT. Neutrophil serine proteases: specific regulators of inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol 2006; 6:541–550. 2. Williams SE, Brown TI, Roghanian A, Sallenave JM. SLPI and elafin: one glove, many fingers. Clin Sci (Lond) 2006; 110:21–35. 3. Saffarzadeh M, Juenemann C, Queisser MA. Neutrophil extracellular traps directly induce epithelial and endothelial cell death: a predominant role of histones. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32366.
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Myeloid biology 4. Skrzeczynska-Moncznik J, Wlodarczyk A, Zabieglo K, et al. Secretory leukocyte proteinase inhibitor-competent DNA deposits are potent stimulators of plasmacytoid dendritic cells: implication for psoriasis. J Immunol 2012; 189:1611–1617. This study demonstrated that the interaction of SLPI with HNE and DNA within NETs leads to a stimulatory action on plasmacytoid dendritic cells to produce type I interferon. This stimulatory activity requires active HNE and illustrates the complexity of interactions between HNE and its endogenous inhibitors within the neutrophil subcellular space. 5. Kerrin A, Weldon S, Chung AH, et al. Proteolytic cleavage of elafin by 20S && proteasome may contribute to inflammation in acute lung injury. Thorax 2013; 68:315–321. This article identifies 20S proteosome activity within the extracellular space as being responsible for the degradation of elafin in patients with acute lung injury. This contributes to reduction in bronchoalveolar elafin (but not SLPI) content over 7 days and may contribute to sustained inflammation in these patients. 6. Motta JP, Bermudez-Humaran LG, Deraison C, et al. Food-grade bacteria && expressing elafin protect against inflammation and restore colon homeostasis. Sci Transl Med 2012; 4:158ra144. This proof-of-principle study demonstrated that safe bacteria expressing and secreting human elafin protect mice and reduce neutrophil elastase-mediated inflammation in models of inflammatory bowel disease. The bacteria also protected cultured human intestinal epithelial cells from inflammatory injury indicating a well tolerated and effective method for therapeutic elafin delivery in this disease. 7. Laugisch O, Schacht M, Guentsch A, et al. Periodontal pathogens affect the level of protease inhibitors in gingival crevicular fluid. Mol Oral Microbiol 2012; 27:45–56. 8. Mallia P, Footitt J, Sotero R, et al. Rhinovirus infection induces degradation of antimicrobial peptides and secondary bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186:1117–1124. 9. Brea D, Meurens F, Dubois AV, et al. The pig as a model for investigating the role of neutrophil serine proteases in human inflammatory lung diseases. Biochem J 2012; 447:363–370. 10. Kossodo S, Zhang J, Groves K, et al. Noninvasive in vivo quantification of neutrophil elastase activity in acute experimental mouse lung injury. Int J Mol Imaging 2011; 2011:581406. 11. Carter RI, Mumford RA, Treonze KM, et al. The fibrinogen cleavage product Aa-Val360, a specific marker of neutrophil elastase activity in vivo. Thorax 2011; 66:686–691. 12. Carter RI, Ungurs MJ, Mumford RA, Stockley RA. Aa-Val360: a marker of & neutrophil elastase and COPD disease activity. Eur Respir J 2013; 41:31–38. Validation of Aa-Val360 as a marker of disease severity and acute exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 13. Barros SC, Martins JA, Marcos JC, Cavaco-Paulo A. Influence of secretory & leukocyte protease inhibitor-based peptides on elastase activity and their incorporation in hyaluronic acid hydrogels for chronic wound therapy. Biopolymers 2012; 98:576–590. Development of a topical delivery system harnessing the putative wound healing properties of SLPI-derived peptides. 14. Reibetanz U, Schonberg M, Rathmann S, et al. Inhibition of human neutrophil elastase by alpha1-antitrypsin functionalized colloidal microcarriers. ACS Nano 2012; 6:6325–6336. 15. Moreau T, Baranger K, Dade S, et al. Multifaceted roles of human elafin and secretory leukocyte proteinase inhibitor (SLPI), two serine protease inhibitors of the chelonianin family. Biochimie 2008; 90:284–295. &&
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16. Alam SR, Newby DE, Henriksen PA. Role of the endogenous elastase inhibitor, elafin, in cardiovascular injury: from epithelium to endothelium. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 83:695–704. A review of the substantial preclinical work indicating the therapeutic potential of elafin in cardiovascular disease. 17. Hilgendorff A, Parai K, Ertsey R, et al. Neonatal mice genetically modified to & express the elastase inhibitor elafin are protected against the adverse effects of mechanical ventilation on lung growth. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2012; 303:L215–L227. This group have characterized the elastase-mediated inflammatory effects of high flow oxygen and ventilation in neonates. Mice expressing human elafin within the pulmonary vasculature were protected from excessive elastase activity including elastin breakdown and structural lung abnormality, indicating the utility of elafin in this disease that has no effective treatment. 18. Meyer M, Kesic MJ, Clarke J, et al. Sulforaphane induces SLPI secretion in the nasal mucosa. Respir Med 2013; 107:472–475. 19. Motta JP, Magne L, Descamps D, et al. Modifying the protease, antiprotease pattern by elafin overexpression protects mice from colitis. Gastroenterology 2011; 140:1272–1282. 20. Iwata K, Doi A, Ohji G, et al. Effect of neutrophil elastase inhibitor (sivelestat sodium) in the treatment of acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intern Med 2010; 49:2423–2432. 21. Miyoshi S, Hamada H, Ito R. Usefulness of a selective neutrophil elastase inhibitor, sivelestat, in acute lung injury patients with sepsis. Drug Des Devel Ther 2013; 7:305–316. 22. Makino H, Kunisaki C, Kosaka T, et al. Perioperative use of a neutrophil elastase inhibitor in video-assisted thoracoscopic oesophagectomy for cancer. Br J Surg 2011; 98:975–982. 23. Tsujii S, Okabayashi T, Shiga M, et al. The effect of the neutrophil elastase inhibitor sivelestat on early injury after liver resection. World J Surg 2012; 36:1122–1127. 24. Vogelmeier C, Aquino TO, O’Brien CD, et al. A randomised, placebo&& controlled, dose-finding study of AZD9668, an oral inhibitor of neutrophil elastase, in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease treated with tiotropium. COPD 2012; 9:111–120. The largest multicentre randomized controlled trial examining three doses of AZD9668 and placebo in 838 patients with COAD over a 3-month period. 25. Kuna P, Jenkins M, O’Brien CD, et al. AZD9668, a neutrophil elastase & inhibitor, plus ongoing budesonide/formoterol in patients with COPD. Respir Med 2012; 106:531–539. A further randomized controlled study with AZD9668 in COAD patients recruiting 615 patients to 60 mg b.i.d. dose compared with placebo for a 3-month treatment period. 26. Elborn JS, Perrett J, Forsman-Semb K, et al. Efficacy, safety and effect on & biomarkers of AZD9668 in cystic fibrosis. Eur Respir J 2012; 40:969–976. A randomized controlled study with 56 cystic fibrosis patients examining a 4-week treatment with AZD9668. Outcome measures included lung function, sputum volume, a range of inflammatory markers within the sputum and urinary desmosines. 27. Stockley R, De SA, Gunawardena K, et al. Phase II study of a neutrophil & elastase inhibitor (AZD9668) in patients with bronchiectasis. Respir Med 2013; 107:524–533. A small randomized controlled ‘signal searching’ study examining a 4-week AZD9668 treatment in 38 patients with bronchiectasis. &
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