J Autism Dev Disord DOI 10.1007/s10803-015-2362-4

ORIGINAL PAPER

The Power of Positivity: Predictors of Relationship Satisfaction for Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Naomi V. Ekas • Lisa Timmons • Megan Pruitt Christine Ghilain • Michael Alessandri

•

Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

Abstract The current study uses the actor-partner interdependence model to examine the predictors of relationship satisfaction for mothers and fathers of children with autism spectrum disorder. Sixty-seven couples completed measures of optimism, benefit finding, coping strategies, social support, and relationship satisfaction. Results indicated that parent’s positive strengths predicted better personal relationship satisfaction. Moreover, parents’ benefit finding, use of emotional support, and perceived social support from their partner also predicted their partner’s relationship satisfaction. The results of this study highlight the importance of focusing on positive factors that can enhance relationship quality. Implications for the development of parent-focused interventions are discussed. Keywords Autism spectrum disorder  Mothers and fathers  Relationship satisfaction  Dyadic data analysis  Social support  Coping  Benefit finding

Introduction The number of children affected by autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the US has reached a prevalence rate of 1 in 68 children (CDC 2014). Therefore, a growing number of parents are facing challenges beyond those experienced by parents of typically developing children. For example, N. V. Ekas (&)  L. Timmons  M. Pruitt Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, TCU Box 298920, Fort Worth, TX 76129, USA e-mail: [email protected] C. Ghilain  M. Alessandri Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA

parents may need to cope with their child’s challenging behaviors, deal with judgments from others, and face a lack of support from friends, family, and the community (Ludlow et al. 2012). In addition to impacting their own mental health, raising a child with ASD can also negatively impact the parents’ relationship (Lee 2009). There are several important individual factors, such as personality and coping styles, which can impact the parents’ relationship in positive ways (Gordon and Baucom 2009). The current study examined the effects of individual factors, including optimism, benefit finding, coping styles, and perceived social support on the relationship satisfaction of both partners. This research reflects a growing emphasis on understanding the processes underlying positive adjustment in parents raising a child with ASD (e.g., Bayat 2007; Bitsika et al. 2013; Faso et al. 2013). Parents raising a child with ASD may experience heightened levels of stress, depression, and anxiety (e.g., Davis and Carter 2008; Estes et al. 2012). Raising a child with ASD may also negatively impact the parents’ relationship. Hartley et al. 2010 reported that parents of children with ASD had a higher divorce rate (23.5 %) compared to parents of children without a disability (13.8 %). The risk of divorce among parents of children with ASD remained elevated until the children reached 30 years of age (Hartley et al. 2010). Similarly, BaezaVelasco et al. 2013 reported a separation rate of 25.2 % across a 10-year period among parents of children with ASD. With respect to relationship satisfaction, parents of children with ASD reported lower levels of satisfaction compared to parents of typically developing children (Gau et al. 2012). In a separate study, levels of relationship satisfaction declined over a 7-year period (Hartley et al. 2012). Given that the quality of the parents’ relationship can impact the psychological adjustment (Benson and

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Kersh 2011) and parenting experiences (Hartley et al. 2011) of parents raising a child with ASD, there is a need for further investigation of the predictors of relationship satisfaction. In recent years, a small number of studies have been conducted examining predictors of relationship satisfaction among parents of children with ASD. For example, children’s symptoms, particularly behavior problems, negatively impacted levels of relationship satisfaction (Hartley et al. 2012). Conversely, in a daily diary study, mothers who reported more positive perceptions of their child’s behavior reported better relationship adjustment (Lickenbrock et al. 2011). Harper et al. 2013 examined the effects of respite care on relationship quality in parents of children with ASD. Respite care was defined as the number of hours that the caregiver received relief from caring for their child and can be conceptualized as a form of social support. Results indicated that respite care positively affected relationship quality, with as little as one hour of care providing a significant increase in relationship quality (Harper et al. 2013). Taken together, this growing body of research suggests that both characteristics of the individual (e.g., maternal perceptions) and the environment (e.g., respite) can impact relationship satisfaction. Factors Affecting Relationship Quality In the general population, the quality of the parents’ relationship may be impacted by a variety of factors including characteristics of the environment and the individual. One factor commonly associated with relationship outcomes is mental health status. For example, in a nationally representative sample, Whisman 2007 found that anxiety, mood, and substance disorders were associated with elevated levels of relationship distress. The transition to parenthood has also been shown to decrease relationship quality (for review see Bradbury et al. 2000). In addition, occupational and financial stress can spill-over to negatively impact the parents’ relationship (Bradbury et al. 2000). Identification of factors that contribute to relationship distress is understandably important for the development of effective interventions; however, it is equally important to understand how positive factors might contribute to strengthening the quality of the relationship. Gordon and Baucom 2009 examined the impact of personal characteristics such as positive affectivity, optimism, and coping strategies on relationship satisfaction. Individuals reported greater relationship satisfaction when they reported having higher levels of positive affect. The use of coping strategies such as positive reinterpretation and growth, active coping, and planning were associated with better relationship satisfaction. Moreover, an individual’s optimism was positively related to satisfaction (Gordon and Baucom 2009).

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Assad et al. 2007 found that optimism predicted satisfying romantic relationships over a 2-year period. Another factor that can positively impact relationship satisfaction is perceptions of partner social support (Dehle et al. 2001; Patrick et al. 2007). Taken together, these results suggest that there are characteristics of the individual and their environment that can lead to optimal levels of relationship satisfaction. Although there are numerous studies examining predictors of relationship satisfaction in the general population, there is a paucity of this research with parents of children with ASD. To our knowledge, there are no studies in this population that examine the impact of personality characteristics, coping strategies, or partner social support on relationship satisfaction. The Current Study The current study was designed to examine the extent to which various personal strengths and positive aspects of the environment impacted relationship satisfaction in mothers and fathers of children with ASD. Our goal was to shift the focus of research from predictors of negative outcomes to examine potential protective factors within the family context. Specifically, we included optimism, benefit finding, coping strategies, and social support as predictors of relationship satisfaction. A considerable body of literature has linked dispositional optimism with increased psychological and physical well-being (Carver et al. 2010). As previously stated, optimism has been found to predict increased happiness and satisfaction in romantic relationships (Assad et al. 2007; Gordon and Baucom 2009). Optimistic individuals reported more constructive problem-solving during conflicts with their partners that led to increased relationship satisfaction (Neff and Geers 2013; Srivastava et al. 2006). Among parents of children with ASD, there has been no research examining the effects of optimism on relationship satisfaction. However, one study examined the impact of dispositional optimism on positive and negative outcomes and found that higher levels of optimism were related to lower levels of negative outcomes (e.g., depression, stress) and greater positive outcomes (e.g., life satisfaction, positive affect; Ekas et al. 2010). Based on this research, we hypothesized that parents of children with ASD who reported higher levels of optimism would report more satisfaction in their romantic relationship. Another construct that may relate to increased relationship satisfaction is benefit finding. Benefit finding refers to the ability to find positive contributions in negative or traumatic life events (Helgeson et al. 2006). Individuals who report finding benefits report less depression and greater positive well-being (Helgeson et al. 2006). Given these positive effects, it may be reasonable to

J Autism Dev Disord

hypothesize that benefit finding may impact relationship satisfaction. To date, only one pilot study has examined this relationship with patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) and their spouses (Mavandadi et al. 2014). This study found that finding greater benefits associated with having PD predicted higher relationship quality. Among parents of children with ASD, researchers have shown that parents do report finding benefits (Tarakeshwar and Pargament 2001) or personal growth (Ekas et al. 2010). Samios et al. 2009 developed a measure of benefit finding for parents of children with high functioning ASD and reported six different factors: new possibilities, growth in character, appreciation, spiritual growth, positive effects of the child, and greater understanding. In this study, higher levels of benefit finding were associated with greater positive affect. No studies have investigated the association between benefit finding and relationship satisfaction in parents of children with ASD; however, based on the pilot study of Mavandadi et al. (2014) we hypothesized a positive relationship. When faced with a stressful situation, individuals can utilize a variety of strategies to cope with the stressor. There are two general categories of coping, problemfocused coping, which focuses on problem solving or altering the source of stress, and emotion-focused coping, which focuses on reducing or managing the emotions associated with the stress (Carver et al. 1989). One coping strategy that has been shown to be effective among parents of children with ASD is the use of social support (for review see Boyd 2002). According to Carver et al. (1989), individuals can seek social support for two reasons: instrumental (seeking advice, assistance, or information) and emotional (getting moral support, sympathy, or understanding). The former is an example of problemfocused coping, whereas the latter is emotion-focused coping. Both types of social support seeking are considered part of a larger category referred to as engagement coping (Carver and Connor-Smith 2010). In a study of mothers of children with ASD, the use of engagement coping (seeking instrumental support, seeking emotional support, active coping, and planning) predicted greater well-being for mothers of children with severe maladaptive behavior (Benson 2010). There has been no research among parents of children with ASD that examines the effects of these strategies on relationship satisfaction; however, one study found that increased perceived social support was associated with less relationship distress (Stuart and McGrew 2009). Unfortunately, this study did not specify the source of perceived social support. This is important as research in the general adult population (e.g., Dehle et al. 2001) has demonstrated that perceived social support from partners is associated with better relationship quality. The current study was the first to examine the effects of seeking

instrumental support, seeking emotional support, and perceived social support from partners on relationship satisfaction in parents raising a child with ASD. Consistent with the aforementioned studies, we hypothesized that the use of these coping strategies and higher perceived social support would be associated with increased relationship satisfaction. Given the dyadic nature of relationships, the current study used the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) to examine the associations between mothers’ and fathers’ optimism, benefit finding, coping strategies, social support, and relationship satisfaction. This model allowed us to examine the effect of these variables on an individual’s relationship satisfaction as well as their partner’s relationship satisfaction. In addition, this dyadic modeling allowed us to account for the lack of independence between mothers and fathers. We hypothesized that an individual’s characteristics would be positively associated with their own ratings of relationship satisfaction. Given the dearth of research in this population, we explored the effects of these characteristics on their partner’s relationship satisfaction.

Methods Participants The current study consisted of 67 cohabitating couples who were part of a larger study. Fifty-four participants from the larger study were not included in this study because their partner did not participate. Five couples were excluded because one or both participants did not complete the dependent measure, though both participated in the larger study. As shown in Table 1, participants were primarily Hispanic and Caucasian college graduates with annual household incomes above $40,000, parenting at least one child with ASD (Tables 2 and 3). Procedure Through collaboration with a regional autism center that provides family services following the diagnosis of a child with an ASD (e.g., providing resources, support, training, awareness, and education) participants were recruited from a large, metropolitan city and surrounding areas. The center mailed out recruitment flyers to all families currently receiving services. If parents expressed interest, an informational letter explaining the study, informed consent, and the survey were mailed to parents. Once the surveys were returned, parents were sent a certificate for a free movie ticket and popcorn at a local movie chain. This study was conducted with ethical approval.

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J Autism Dev Disord Table 1 Sample demographics (n = 67 dyads)

Mothers % (n)

Fathers % (n)

Marital status Single

3 (2)

4.5 (3)

Married

95.5 (64)

95.5 (64)

Divorced

1.5 (1)

0 (0)

Annual household income \$7,500

1.5 (1)

1.5 (1)

$7,500–$14,999

0 (0)

0 (0)

$15,000–$24,999

3 (2)

3 (2)

$25,000–$39,999

9 (6)

$40,000–$74,999

26.9 (18)

9 (6) 26.9 (18)

$75,000–$99,999

19.4 (13)

19.4 (13)

[$100,000

37.3 (25)

37.3 (25)

1.5 (1)

14.9 (10)

6 (4) 19.4 (13)

4.5 (3) 16.4 (11)

Education High school Vocational education Some college classes Percentages are based on parent-reported information. Two couples (both mother and father) did not complete the item about income and one additional father did not report his income. All couples in the study were in committed relationships and living together, but three couples were not married

College degree

43.3 (29)

37.3 (25)

Post college degree

29.9 (20)

26.9 (18)

35.8 (24)

38.8 (26)

1.5 (1)

1.5 (1)

Ethnicity White/caucasian African-American Caribbean-American

55.2 (37)

Mixed ethnicity/other Family has another child with autism

Table 2 Child characteristics (n = 67)

Gender of child with ASD

Females % (n)

Males % (n)

16.4 (11)

83.6 (56)

Diagnosis of child with ASD Autistic disorder

72.7 (8)

50 (28)

PDD-NOS

18.2 (2)

37.5 (21)

9.1 (1)

12.5 (7)

Asperger’s syndrome

Measures Coping Parent coping was measured using the Brief COPE (Carver 1997). The Brief COPE is a condensed version of the COPE (Carver et al. 1989) and was designed to be a less time consuming measure for participants. Although originally developed for use with breast cancer patients, the creators have encouraged researchers to modify it for other applications. Participants were instructed to think about how they have been coping with the stress in their life since their child was diagnosed with ASD and report on a threepoint Likert-type scale (0 = I haven’t been doing this at all

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3 (2)

Hispanic or Latino

1.5 (1) 52.5 (35)

4.5 (3)

6 (4)

11.9 (8)

11.9 (8)

to 3 = I’ve been doing this a lot) how much they engage in each coping strategy listed. The scale is comprised of 28 total items that can be further condensed to 14 subscales each consisting of two questions. For the purpose of this study, we focused on the use of instrumental coping and use of emotional support subscales, which assess the degree to which people seek advice or help from others or seek emotional support and comfort from others respectively. This is a valid and reliable measure of coping within multiple populations (Carver et al. 1989). Internal consistencies were 0.78 and 0.80 for the instrumental and emotional subscales, respectively. Benefit Finding The benefit finding scale (Carver and Antoni 2004) was used to measure the extent to which parents view their child’s ASD diagnosis as having a positive contribution on their own lives. Originally used and validated within the breast cancer population (Carver and Antoni 2004), this study modified the original measure in order to be relevant to the current population by asking them to reflect on the contribution of a diagnosis of ASD to their lives as opposed

J Autism Dev Disord Table 3 Sample characteristics (n = 67) Dyad M (SD)

Mothers M (SD)

Fathers M (SD)

Age of child with ASD (months)

78.09 (26.24)

–

–

Parent age

–

38.63 (5.67)

42.76 (6.71)

Number of hours working outside the home

–

23.85 (18.6)

40.86 (14.25)

One couple did not report number of hours spent working outside the home, so the averages for both mothers and fathers are based on reported information from 66 dyads

to a diagnosis of breast cancer. The scale consists of 17 items in which parents report on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = not at all to 5 = extremely) how much they agree with each of the items. Higher scores reflect higher levels of benefit finding. Internal consistency in the current study was 0.92.

six items asking how much they agreed with each of the statements. Higher scores reflected higher levels of support. Good internal consistency has been found in previous studies of mothers of children with ASD (Ekas et al. 2010). Internal consistency in the current study was 0.94. Analysis Plan

Optimism The Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R; Scheier et al. 1994) was used in this study to measure generalized optimism. The LOT-R contains ten items ranked on a fivepoint Likert-type scale (1 = I disagree a lot to 5 = I agree a lot). Only six items are included in the final score. Three items were reverse coded. Participants are asked to use that scale to indicate how much they agree with each of the ten statements. A high score indicates higher levels of optimism. This measure has been shown to be reliable and valid in an adult population (Scheier et al. 1994). Cronbach’s µ in the current study was 0.77. Relationship Satisfaction In order to assess the individual’s perceptions of their romantic relationship, participants completed the couples satisfaction index (CSI; Funk and Rogge 2007). This measure reflects how satisfied they are with their relationship and consists of 32 items that ask about different aspects of the relationship. The response format varied throughout the measure, but was generally on a seven-point likert scale. Items were summed to produce an overall relationship satisfaction score, with a higher score indicating greater satisfaction. Cronbach’s µ in the current study was 0.99.

The current study includes individuals involved in a committed relationship. Therefore, the responses of each member of the couple are likely to be influenced by their partner. For example, the relationship satisfaction ratings of the husband may be influenced by his own characteristics as well as the characteristics of his partner. This mutual influence violates the assumptions of independence that is necessary for traditional statistical analyses (Kenny et al. 2006, p. 4). Therefore, in this study we employ the APIM to account for the non-independence between members of a couple (Kenny et al. 2006, pp.144-184). As shown in Fig. 1, the APIM allows us to simultaneously model actor (denoted as path a) and partner (denoted as path p) effects. An actor effect refers to the effect of an individual’s score on the independent variable on their own dependent variable. For example, a wife’s level of optimism affects her ratings of relationship satisfaction. Conversely, a partner effect refers to the effect of an individual’s score on the independent variable on their partner’s dependent variable.

a

p

Spousal/Partner Support Participants’ perceptions of the quality of social support received from their spouse/partner was examined through a scale developed by Whalen and Lachman (2000), using items adapted from a previous study that validated the measure (Schuster et al. 1990). Responses were given on a four-point Likert-type scale (1 = a lot to 4 = not at all) to

Y1

X1

p

X2

Y2 a

Fig. 1 Hypothesized Actor-Partner Interdependence Model where a is the actor effect and p is the partner effect. X denotes the independent variable and Y specifies the dependent variable

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Using our previous example, a wife’s level of optimism affects her partner’s ratings of relationship satisfaction. To apply the APIM to the research questions in this study, we used Hierarchical Linear Modeling with the HLM 7.0 software (HLM; Raudenbush and Bryk 2002). HLM is appropriate because it accounts for the non-independence of the data using multiple levels. In this study, individuals (level 1) are nested within a couple (level 2). We tested five separate models with instrumental coping, emotional coping, spouse/partner support, benefit finding, and optimism predicting relationship satisfaction. Each of the models was tested using the following equation: Level1:Relationshipsatisfaction ¼ b0 þb1 ðAGenderÞ þb2 ðAIndependentVariableÞ þ b3 ðPIndependentVariableÞ þr Level 2: b0 = c00 + u0 b1 ¼ c10 b2 ¼ c20 b3 ¼ c30 In the level 1 equation, each person’s relationship satisfaction was predicted by an intercept (b0), their gender (b1), their own score on the independent variable (b2; actor effect), their partner’s score on the independent variable (b3; partner effect), and error (r). The independent variables (b2 and b3) were centered around their respective grand means and only the intercept was specified as a random variable (Campbell and Kashy 2002). Gender was coded 1 (male) and -1 (female). All models were tested using restricted maximum likelihood.

Results Attrition Analyses In order to examine how individuals included in this study differed from the 64 married participants from the larger study, whose partner opted not to participate in the study, we conducted one-way ANOVAs. The analyses indicated that the participants whose spouses did not participate did not differ significantly in number of hours working outside the home or age of child with ASD compared to the couples in which both partners participated, ps [ 0.05. However, the participants whose spouses did not participate were significantly younger (M = 38.55, SD = 5.86) than those included in the study (M = 40.69, SD = 6.53), F (1, 196) = 5.00, p \ 0.05. Chi square analyses of independence were used to test for differences between the same groups for categorical variables. The participants whose spouses did not participate were not different from the

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remaining participants in level of education, ethnicity, gender of child, or diagnosis of child, ps [ 0.05. However, the groups did differ significantly in household income, v2 (6, n = 191) = 16.42, p \ 0.01. The majority of the participants in the study had an income [$75,000 annually, but the majority of those excluded because their partner did not participate had lower household incomes. In order to determine if there were any differences between the couples excluded because one or both did not complete the dependent measure (CSI) and those who were included in the study, a series of one-way ANOVAs were conducted. Results indicated that the five couples excluded because one or both did not complete the CSI did not differ significantly in age, number of hours working outside the home, or age of child with autism, compared to the remaining couples, ps [ 0.05. Chi square analyses of independence were used to test for differences between the couples for categorical variables. The excluded couples did not significantly differ from the remaining couples in child diagnosis, gender of child, or ethnicity, ps [ 0.05. However, there was a significant difference between household income, v2 (6, n = 139) = 30.25, p \ 0.001, as well as, parent education level, v2 (4, n = 143) = 11.44, p \ 0.05. More than half of the couples included in the study exceeded $75,000 in annual household income, whereas the majority of the excluded couples fell below that income level. Preliminary Analyses In order to examine the similarity between mothers and fathers on our constructs of interest, one-way ANOVAs were conducted. As shown in Table 4, results revealed that mothers and fathers did not significantly differ in reported partner support, optimism, or relationship satisfaction, ps [ 0.05. Mothers reported higher use of emotional social support coping than fathers did, F (1, 130) = 21.83, p \ 0.001. Additionally, mothers reported higher use of instrumental social support coping than fathers did, F (1, 132) = 19.25, p \ 0.001. Lastly, mothers reported greater levels of benefit finding compared to fathers, F (1, 132) = 13.21, p \ 0.001. As shown in Table 4, we examined the correlations between study variables, both within and between mothers and fathers. There were several similar patterns of relationship for mothers and fathers. For instance, more benefit finding was correlated with greater partner satisfaction for both mothers, r = 0.41, p \ 0.01, and fathers, r = 0.42, p \ 0.01. More perceived partner support was highly related to greater partner satisfaction for mothers, r = 0.81, p \ 0.01, and moderately so for fathers, r = 0.42, p \ 0.01. Partner satisfaction was also related to use of emotional social support as a coping strategy by mothers,

J Autism Dev Disord Table 4 Correlations of all study variables within and between mothers and fathers

1. Mothers—optimism 2. Fathers—optimism 3. Mothers—relationship satisfaction

1

2

3

4

5

6

_

0.27*

0.14

0.07

0.33**

_

0.05

0.19

0.17

_

0.81** _

4. Fathers—relationship satisfaction 5. Mothers—benefit finding 6. Fathers—benefit finding

7

8

9

10

-0.11

0.23

0.10

0.16

0.16

0.20

0.07

23.09 (4.84)

0.08

0.02

0.10

0.22

0.16

0.25*

0.24*

22.20 (5.32)

0.41**

0.28*

0.81**

0.63**

0.36**

0.26*

0.09

0.28*

114.21 (38.90)

0.37**

0.42**

0.68**

0.72**

0.28*

0.39**

0.04

0.32**

114.53 (36.51)

_

0.30*

0.39**

0.31*

0.33**

0.22

0.19

0.24*

66.40 (12.83)

0.20

0.42**

0.07

0.43**

-0.05

0.22

57.39 (15.73)

**

0.23

0.17

0.10

0.19

21.28 (4.15)

0.13

0.33**

-0.14

0.21

21.51 (4.00)

_

0.29*

0.25*

0.28*

5.16 (1.72)

_

0.15

0.56**

3.80 (1.63)

0.22

5.55 (1.91)

–

4.12 (1.87)

_

7. Mothers—spouse/ partner support 8. Fathers—spouse/partner support

_

0.65 _

9. Mothers—use of emotional support 10. Fathers—use of emotional support 11. Mothers—use of instrumental support

11

_

12. Fathers—use of instrumental support

12

M (SD)

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

r = 0.36, p \ 0.01, and fathers, r = 0.39, p \ 0.01. There were several relationships, however, that were not consistent for mothers and fathers. For example, use of instrumental social support as a coping strategy by fathers was related to satisfaction with partner, r = 0.32, p \ 0.01, but the two were not related for mothers, r = 0.09, p [ 0.05. In addition to the relationships within mothers and fathers, multiple variables were related between partners. For example, mothers’ and fathers’ benefit finding, r = 0.30, p \ 0.05 and optimism, r = 0.27, p \ 0.05, were positively related to one another. Use of emotional social support by mothers was related to use of the same by fathers, r = 0.29, p \ 0.05. However, use of instrumental social support was not related between mothers and fathers, p [ 0.05. Perceived support from partner by mothers and fathers was related, r = 0.65, p \ 0.01. Also, greater satisfaction of one partner was related to greater partner satisfaction for the other, r = 0.41, p \ 0.01. The significant correlations between partners indicate overlap and the need for the actor-partner interdependence model.

Prior to testing the APIMs, preliminary analyses were conducted to determine whether the inclusion of covariates was necessary. No significant associations between demographic variables (e.g., child gender, parent income, parent education, parent marital status, number of children with ASD, and age at diagnosis) and any of the variables in the APIMs were found. The results of the APIMs are shown in Table 5. Significant actor effects were found for each of the models tested. Specifically, higher levels of an individual’s benefit finding, optimism, instrumental and emotional coping, and spouse/partner support predicted greater relationship satisfaction for that individual. The effects of the partner’s characteristics on an individual’s relationship satisfaction were not as consistent. Higher levels of an individual’s benefit finding, emotional coping, and spouse/ partner support predicted greater relationship satisfaction as reported by their partner. No significant gender effects emerged, suggesting that these effects were consistent across males and females.

Actor-Partner Interdependence Models Discussion Five separate APIMs were tested for each independent variable of interest (benefit finding, optimism, instrumental coping, emotional coping, and spouse/partner support).

This study aimed to understand the factors associated with relationship satisfaction among mothers and fathers of

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J Autism Dev Disord Table 5 Actor-partner interdependence models examining the effects of parent characteristics on mothers’ and fathers’ relationship satisfaction Model

Relationship satisfaction b

SE

Benefit finding Intercept Gender

114.37***

3.87

1.73

1.60

Actor

0.91***

0.19

Partner

0.57**

0.19

Optimism Intercept

114.37***

4.36

0.62

1.42

Actor

1.16*

0.59

Partner

0.13

0.59

Gender

Instrumental support Intercept

114.37***

4.27

Gender

0.87

1.70

Actor Partner

3.48* 2.49

1.58 1.58

Emotional support Intercept

114.06***

4.10

Gender

2.99

1.61

Actor

7.39***

1.66

Partner

4.00*

1.66

Spouse/partner support Intercept

114.37***

2.50

Gender

-0.17

1.32

Actor

5.47***

0.52

Partner

2.49***

0.52

* p \ .05; ** p \ .01; *** p \ .001

children with ASD. More importantly, this study focused on positive factors that may strengthen the relationship satisfaction of each partner. This study was the first to use the APIM to examine the effects of an individual’s optimism, benefit finding, coping strategies, and social support on their own relationship satisfaction, as well as the satisfaction of their partner. Our findings indicated that each of these factors was positively associated with an individual’s relationship satisfaction; however, only benefit finding, seeking emotional support, and spouse/partner support affected their partner as well. Our first set of findings showed that an individual’s positive strengths predicted their own increased levels of relationship satisfaction. These results are consistent with literature from the general population (e.g., Gordon and Baucom 2009) showing the beneficial effects of these characteristics. Among parents of children with ASD, these characteristics have been shown to be associated with

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increased individual well-being (e.g., Benson 2010; Ekas et al. 2010; Samios et al. 2009) however, the current study is the first to establish that these positive effects also extend to parents’ romantic relationships. Given the paucity of research surrounding the romantic relationships of parents raising a child with ASD, this study has important implication for clinicians working with parents and families. For example, teaching parents to seek emotional and/or instrumental support may be particularly helpful. Implementing a brief, daily optimism intervention may also prove to be beneficial for relationship satisfaction for those parents who rate themselves as being pessimistic (LittmanOvadia and Nir 2014). The effects found in the current study were consistent for both males and females, suggesting that these interventions could be used with both mothers and fathers. When we examined the effects on an individual’s positive strengths on their partner’s relationship satisfaction the results were different. We found that an individual’s benefit finding predicted their partner’s satisfaction, but the same was not true for optimism. The results for benefit finding were consistent with the only previously published study examining benefit finding and relationship satisfaction (Mavandadi et al. 2014). However, with respect to optimism, we were surprised since optimism was associated with positive outcomes within the individual and has previously been shown to be associated with partner satisfaction in studies of adults from the general population (Assad et al. 2007). Why would benefit finding and not optimism predict partner satisfaction? Indeed, at first glance benefit finding and optimism appear to be measuring similar constructs. However, optimism refers to an individual’s general expectancy about the future (Carver et al. 2010) whereas benefit finding refers to finding the positive during a challenging circumstance (Carver and Antoni 2004). In this study, the two constructs showed a small association for mothers and no association for fathers, suggesting little conceptual overlap. In the context of facing the diagnosis of a lifelong developmental disability, it is possible that an individual’s general view of the future (i.e., optimism) is less helpful to their partner than the changes in their ways of thinking as a direct result of their child’s diagnosis (i.e., benefit finding). Indeed, several of the questions that we used to assess benefit finding relate to family functioning and social relationships. It is possible that when both mothers and fathers experience positive changes and growth as the result of their child’s diagnosis, they grow closer together as a couple (Weiss 2004). Our results suggest that programs aimed at teaching parents ways to positively interpret the circumstances surrounding their child’s diagnosis may be especially beneficial for themselves and their partner.

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Nonetheless, further research is needed to clarify why benefit finding and optimism predicted different outcomes. We also found differences in how the coping strategies of seeking instrumental and emotional support impact the individual and their partner. Both types of coping positively impact an individual’s relationship satisfaction, but only emotional support predicted their partner’s satisfaction. Instrumental support refers to seeking advice or assistance from another, whereas emotional support involves seeking moral support, sympathy or understanding (Carver et al. 1989). Previous studies have shown that these coping mechanisms were associated with increased well-being (e.g., Benson 2010). However, there are no studies using a dyadic framework to understand the effects of these types of coping strategies on well-being. Therefore, we can only speculate as to why there were differential effects on the partners. It is possible that parents’ are turning to one another for emotional support since they are sharing this common experience. This may lead to a strengthening of feelings of togetherness that promotes relationship satisfaction. Conversely, seeking advice from your partner may not lead to the same feelings, especially if your partner may have the same questions and concerns. Unfortunately, in this study we did not assess whether the partner was seeking support from their partner or someone outside the romantic relationship. Nonetheless, encouraging parents to seek emotional support from another person may have positive benefits for themselves and their partner. Given that both mothers and fathers participated in this study, we also examined whether there were gender differences in any of the associations. Although we found that mothers reported significantly higher levels of seeking emotional support, seeking instrumental support, and benefit finding there were no gender differences in the dyadic models. As previously discussed, benefit finding and seeking emotional support predicted the individual and the partner’s relationship satisfaction. Although fathers may report lower levels, these characteristics still have an impact on their partners’ relationship satisfaction. However, it is possible that the strength of these effects may increase if fathers participated in programs that emphasized seeking support and positive reinterpretations of their child’s diagnosis. Although the current study presents many innovative findings, there are also several limitations that warrant discussion. Although the participants in this study were ethnically diverse ([50 % Hispanic), they were highly educated and predominantly upper-middle class. Therefore, the results may not generalize to a lower socioeconomic population. Indeed, the couples who participated in the study had a higher income than those who did not have a partner participate in the study. The sample size in this study was small when considering most self-report studies;

however, for studies using dyadic models, the sample was generally consistent with previous research (e.g., Klausli and Owen 2011). Another limitation is the cross-sectional nature of the research. Longitudinal research is needed to confirm the directionality of our hypotheses. Another possible extension would be the use of a daily diary design to ascertain the supportive and conflictual interactions that occur between partners (e.g., Laurenceau et al. 2005). In sum, this study charted new territory in using a dyadic model to explore how positive strengths were associated with relationship satisfaction among parents of children with ASD. Consistent with research in the general adult population, each of the positive strengths assessed was associated with better relationship satisfaction. Several of these personal strengths (benefit finding, spouse/partner social support, and seeking emotional support) also impacted the partner’s relationship satisfaction. This research highlights the importance of focusing on positive factors that can enhance relationship quality as opposed to focusing only on reducing distress (Gordon and Baucom 2009). Focusing on the strengths of parents of children with ASD can inform the development of interventions. For example, teaching mothers and fathers to reach out for emotional support may be particularly efficacious for increasing the satisfaction of both members of the relationship. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the families of the Florida Centers for Autism and Related Disabilities for their time.

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