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The role of action and coping planning in the relationship between intention and physical activity: A moderated mediation analysis a
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Johan Caudroit , Julie Boiché & Yannick Stephan a
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CRIS EA 647, University of Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
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Laboratory Epsylon EA 4556, Dynamics of Human Abilities & Health Behaviours, University of Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France Accepted author version posted online: 21 Jan 2014.Published online: 17 Feb 2014.
To cite this article: Johan Caudroit, Julie Boiché & Yannick Stephan (2014) The role of action and coping planning in the relationship between intention and physical activity: A moderated mediation analysis, Psychology & Health, 29:7, 768-780, DOI: 10.1080/08870446.2014.884223 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.884223
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Psychology & Health, 2014 Vol. 29, No. 7, 768–780, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.884223
The role of action and coping planning in the relationship between intention and physical activity: A moderated mediation analysis
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Johan Caudroita*, Julie Boichéb and Yannick Stephanb a CRIS EA 647, University of Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France; bLaboratory Epsylon EA 4556, Dynamics of Human Abilities & Health Behaviours, University of Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France
(Received 21 August 2013; accepted 12 January 2014) Objective: Using a moderated mediation model, the present study investigated whether the mediation of intention into physical activity (PA) behaviour via action planning depends on the level of coping planning. Method: A four-month prospective study was conducted among 157 French adults, who were recruited through a web-based survey. They were administrated measures of behavioural intention and sociodemographic variables at baseline and action and coping planning and PA four months later. Results: Action planning partially mediated the contribution of intention on PA level. However, this indirect effect was conditional on the level of coping planning, insofar as action planning acted as a mediator of the intention–PA relationship only for individuals with high level of coping planning. Conclusion: The results highlight the complexity of the relationship between intention and behaviour and provide evidence for the distinct role of both forms of planning. Keywords: intention; planning; physical activity; moderated mediation
It is well established that regular participation in physical activity (PA) is an effective way to prevent the development of chronic diseases and certain types of cancer (World Health Organization, 2009), and to promote psychological well-being (ThøgersenNtoumani & Fox, 2005) and health-related quality of life (Blacklock, Rhodes, & Brown, 2007) in the general population. However, although many individuals are aware of health benefits of regular PA and intend to be physically active, most of them fail to optimise or enhance their level of PA. Thus, the present study aims to provide an in-depth identification of the processes explaining the intention–behaviour gap. Socio-cognitive determinants of PA Social cognitive models, such as the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) and the Protection Motivation Theory (Maddux & Rogers, 1983), assume that an individual’s intention to adopt a given behaviour, defined as the amount of effort one is willing to exert to attain a goal (Ajzen, 1991), is the most proximal predictor of actual behaviour. However, intentions often fail to be translated into behaviour (Gollwitzer & *Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] © 2014 Taylor & Francis
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Sheeran, 2006; Schwarzer, 2008; Sniehotta, Scholz, & Schwarzer, 2005). Reviews and meta-analyses showed that intentions only explain 20–30% of the variance in PA behaviour (Downs & Hausenblas, 2005; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002; McEachan, Conner, Taylor, & Lawton, 2011). To understand why some people succeed in translating their intention to engage in PA into actual PA behaviour whereas others do not, individual differences in post-intentional processes of goal pursuit should be considered (Abraham, Sheeran, & Johnston, 1998). The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA; Schwarzer, 1992) was precisely developed to address the intention– behaviour gap by including, in a volitional phase, post-intentional determinants of behaviour, such as planning constructs (Schwarzer, 2008). A recent meta-analysis on 19 correlational and 21 experimental studies confirmed the importance of planning processes in bridging the gap between intentions and behaviour (Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013). The concept of planning can be subdivided into two facets, namely action and coping planning. Action planning is an extension of intention formation that includes specific situation parameters and a sequence of action (Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005). People remember their intentions better when they are specified in a when, where and how to act. Coping planning refers to anticipating difficulties or barriers that might hinder the implementation of one’s behaviour intention and includes strategies to overcome such difficulties (Sniehotta, Schwarzer, Scholz, & Schüz, 2005). People imagine scenarios that hinder them in performing the intended behaviour and they develop one or several plans to cope with such challenging situations. Sniehotta, Scholz et al. (2005) found that cardiac patients who were encouraged to make both action and coping plans were significantly more successful in exercising than patients who were told to make action plans only. Although action and coping planning were previously found to act as partial mediators of the intention–behaviour relationship (Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013), some scholars have suggested that action planning exerts its influence earlier in the behaviour change process than coping planning (Sniehotta, 2009; Sniehotta, Schwarzer et al., 2005). More precisely, it may be that once individuals have created action plans to support their intentions, they create additional coping plans to support not only their intention but also their action plans (Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013). In line with these studies, the present study aimed to examine, first, the potential mediating role of action planning in the intention–PA level relationship and, additionally, the potential moderating role of coping planning in the relationship between action planning and PA level. Action planning as mediator of the intention–behaviour relationship Although action planning could act as a moderator of the relationship between intention and behaviour in the exercise domain (e.g. De Bruijn, Rhodes, & Van Osch, 2011), the majority of past studies found that action planning mediates the relationship between intention and PA level (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 2; Scholz, Schüz, Ziegelmann, Lippke, & Schwarzer, 2008; Schwarzer et al., 2007, Study 1–3; Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005). This result suggests that individuals with higher intentions are more likely to plan where, when and how to exercise and that, in turn, these action plans are more likely to translate intentions into actual PA. However, other studies have failed to find a significant mediation of the intention–behaviour relationship through action planning (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 1; Schwarzer et al., 2007, Study 4).
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These inconsistent findings suggest that the interplay between intention, planning and behaviour might depend upon other factors. Previous correlational studies have identified several moderators of the relationship between planning and PA, such as chronological age (Renner, Spivak, Kwon, & Schwarzer, 2007; Reuter et al., 2010), level of intention itself (Wiedemann, Schuz, Sniehotta, Scholz, & Schwarzer, 2009) and PA self-efficacy beliefs (Lippke, Wiedemann, Ziegelmann, Reuter, & Schwarzer, 2009; Luszczynska, Schwarzer, Lippke, & Mazurkiewicz, 2011). Statistically speaking, this represents a case of moderated mediation (Preacher, Rucker, & Hayes, 2007). This line of research is innovative because the identification of potential moderators might explain the inconsistent results of previous studies regarding the role of action planning as a mediator between intention and PA level (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 1; Schwarzer et al., 2007). However, these studies have mainly focused on the mediational role of action planning and have neglected the contribution of coping planning in the interplay between intention, action planning and behaviour. Coping planning as moderator of the action planning–behaviour relationship The literature evoked two distinct points of view regarding the role of coping planning in the relationship between intention and PA. HAPA (Schwarzer, 1992, 2008) posits that action and coping plans act simultaneously as proximal determinants of the behaviour, whereas Sniehotta, Scholz et al. (2005) argue that action planning temporally precedes coping planning. In line with Sniehotta, Scholz et al. (2005), action plans would exert their influence earlier in the behaviour change process by facilitating the initiation of action, whether coping planning would exert its influence later in the behaviour change, thanks to the identification of relevant barriers and strategies to overcome them. Thus, people, who have intention to engage in PA and have created actions plans, might fail to enhance their PA level because they have not anticipated potential barriers. Coping planning, which may play a distinct role in the behaviour change process, could be reconsidered as a potential moderator in a moderation mediation model from intention to action planning to PA level (see Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013). Indeed, if a person with strong intention to engage in PA succeeds in elaborating action plans to support these intentions, but fails to overcome potential obstacles that will stand in front of her, and to cope with difficulties by anticipating risk situations, she is less likely to adopt and maintain PA, compared to a person with strong PA intention, who has elaborated actions plans and has acquired sufficient resources to identify and overcome potential barriers. The present study Drawing upon the post-intentional phase of the HAPA model (Schwarzer, 1992), the aim of the present study is to further extend research in investigating individual differences in the gap between intention and behaviour by examining whether action planning mediates the effect of behavioural intention on level of PA four months later as a function of the underlying levels of coping planning, controlling for age and sex. We formulated two hypotheses to test this moderated mediation model (see Figure 1).1
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Figure 1. Overview of the hypotheses examined in the study. Note: PA = Physical activity. Hypothesis 1: In line with previous studies (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 2; Scholz et al., 2008; Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005), it was suggested that the positive relationship between intention and level of PA four months later is mediated by action planning. In other words, higher level of intention to engage in PA is likely to be related to higher level of action planning, which may in turn be associated with higher level of PA. Hypothesis 2: In line with previous research investigating moderation mediation models (Lippke et al., 2009; Reuter et al., 2010; Wiedemann et al., 2009), it was hypothesised that the strength of the mediation of action planning in the relationship between intention and level of PA is stronger in people with high levels of coping planning than those with low levels of coping planning.
Method Participants and procedure Participants were personnel working at a French University, who were invited, via email, to take part in a two-wave survey on lifestyle among adults. To begin with, a message gave them information on the aim of the study – i.e. to gather information about their leisure activities – and they were informed that their participation was completely anonymous and voluntary. The study was approved by the University Departmental Ethics Committee. A link embedded in the email presentation of the study took them directly to the first online survey (Time 1), which assessed demographic characteristics (i.e. age, sex, marital status, education level and occupational status) and intention to engage in PA during the next four months. Four months later, a new email was sent to the 408 individuals who had filled out the first survey, containing a link to the second online survey (Time 2), to obtain information about action and coping planning and level of PA during the last four months. The final sample was composed of 157 participants (54 men and 103 women) who
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completed both Time 1 and Time 2 questionnaires. The mean age of the sample was 38.68 years (SD = 10.69 years), ranging from 23 to 70 years. Of the sample, 75.2% was living with a partner and 24.8% was living alone. Considering education attainment, 2.5% had basic school learning qualification, 9.6% had high school diploma and 87.9% had university undergraduate degree. Our sample was divided into 47.1% of academic professions, 28% of intermediate professions, 19.1% of administrative staff and 5.8% of other professions. The retention rate of participants from Time 1 to 2 of 38.48% is slightly lower than the rate observed in similar studies (Renner et al., 2007; Reuter et al., 2010). Participants who were lost to the follow-up (n = 251) were compared with those who were retained (n = 157) on all baseline variables. No significant differences were found with regard to gender, χ2(1) = 1.04, p = .30, or behavioural intention, F(1406) = 1.30, p = 0.25. However, individuals in the final sample were significantly younger (M = 38.68; SD = 10.69) than those who provided data at T1 but not T2 (M = 42; SD = 10.64), F(1, 406) = 9.68, p < .01. Measures Intention In line with previous studies (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2007; Chatzisarantis, Hagger, Smith, & Phoenix, 2004), intentions to engage in PA were assessed using four items (e.g. ‘I intend to exercise for at least five times a week for 30 min each time’ or ‘I’ll try to be physically active for at least five times a week for 30 min each time’). These items were based on the global PA recommendation for health (World Health Organization, 2010). Responses were made on 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (exactly true). Higher score indicated higher levels of behavioural intention (α = .93). Planning Self-reported planning was assessed using the two subscales proposed by Sniehotta, Scholz et al. (2005). Responses were made on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true). Action planning was measured by five items (α = .91). The item stem ‘During the past four months, I have made a detailed plan regarding …’ was followed by: ‘… (a) When to do my exercise, (b) Where to do my exercise, (c) How to exercise, (d) How often to exercise and (e) With whom to exercise’. Coping planning was measured by four items (α = .87). The item stem ‘I have made a detailed plan regarding …’ was followed by: ‘… (a) What to do if something intervenes, (b) When to especially watch out in order to stay committed, (c) What to do if I miss an exercise session and (d) What to do in difficult situations in order to stick to my intentions’. Physical activity The measure of PA was adapted from the French version of the Modifiable Activity Questionnaire (MAQ, Vuillemin et al., 2000). Participants identified all physical activities regularly performed on a pre-established list of 48 activities (e.g. swimming, running, cycling, gymnastics, etc.) during the past four months at Time 2. In particular, participants specified the frequency and duration for each activity identified. The
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product of frequency and duration was computed to obtain an index of total time spent exercising expressed in minutes per week, which was used as PA score. The accuracy (i.e. both validity and reliability) of the MAQ has been previously reported (Kriska et al., 1990; Schulz, Harper, Smith, Kriska, & Ravussin, 1994). Spearman correlation coefficients of test and 1–3 week retest comprised between .88 and .92 (Kriska et al., 1990). Past-year PA was shown to be significantly related to past-week activity (r = .69, p < .05) measured by activity monitors (Kriska et al., 1990) and to total energy expenditure (r = .56, p < .05) measured by the doubly labelled water method (Schulz et al., 1994). Results Means, standard deviations, kurtosis, skewness and Pearson’s correlation coefficients between the variables of the study are presented in Table 1. Hypothesis 1: action planning as a mediator in the intention–behaviour relationship To test the significance of the indirect effect of behavioural intention on level of PA, through action planning, we used the SPSS macro for indirect effect provided by Preacher and Hayes (2004). This macro facilitates the implementation of a bootstrapping method, which does not impose distributional assumptions. This represents a considerable advantage, because the assumption that the indirect effect is normally distributed is often violated (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). In order to test the mediational effect of action planning in the relationship between intention and PA, three steps must be achieved. First, the relationship between the independent variable (IV; intention) and dependent variable (DV; level of PA) is examined; second, the relationship between intention (IV) and the mediator (action planning) is tested; and third, the relationship of both IV (intention) and mediator (action planning) on DV (PA) is evaluated, taking into account relevant covariates (i.e. age and sex), to test for indirect effect. The indirect effect was quantified as the product of the mean bootstrapped sample estimates (N = 5000) of the regression coefficients. The macro provided bootstrapped confidence intervals (CIs) around these indirect effects. Point estimates of indirect effects were considered significant when zero was not contained in any CI (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Table 2 reports the results of the mediation analysis. In line with Hypothesis 1, positive and significant paths were found from intention to action planning ( β = .26, p < .01) and from action planning to PA level ( β = .27, p < .01). The bootstrap procedure revealed that the total contribution of intention on the level of PA four months later was significant ( β = .22, p < .01), but became non-significant ( β = .15, p = .07) when action planning was included in the model. This suggests that the contribution of behavioural intention on PA level is mediated by action planning. The results of the bootstrapping analysis confirmed that the indirect contribution of intentions on PA level through action planning was significant with a point estimate of 3.34 [95% CI: 1.12–6.97]. Hypothesis 2: coping planning moderates the mediating effect of action planning in the intention–behaviour relationship2 We used the SPSS macro for moderated mediation analysis (Model 3; Preacher & Hayes, 2004; Preacher et al., 2007) to compute the indirect effect of intention on PA
Age Sex Intention AP CP PA
38.68 – 4.08 2.75 2.23 87.77
M
10.69 – 2.24 1.06 .98 108.20
SD 23–70 – 1–7 1–4 1–4 0–480
Range .57 – −.04 −.45 .24 1.29
Kewness
The scores of PA level are expressed in minutes per week.
Notes: PA = Physical activity; CP = Coping planning; AP = Action planning.
***
p < .01. p < .001.
**
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Variables
1 – −.93 −.13 −.08 −.07 −.12
Kurtosis −.51 – −1.49 −1.18 −1.20 1.09
Table 1. Observed correlations and other characteristics of the variables in the model (N = 157).
– −.06 .08 .07 .00
2
– .26*** .26*** .23**
3
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– .59*** .31***
4
– .36***
5
–
6
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Table 2. Mediation analyses of intention on physical activity level via action planning. β
Variables
p
−.09 −.02 .15 .22 .27
Age Sex Intention (Total effect) Action planning (Indirect effect)
.32 .82 .07 .01 .00 [1.12–6.97]
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Note: PA = Physical activity.
Table 3. Bootstrapped mediation effects of intentions on physical activity via action planning at specific values of coping planning. Coping planning −1 SD Mean + 1 SD
Indirect effect 0.17 2.69 5.28
SE
z
p
1.38 1.53 2.61
0.12 1.76 2.00
.90 .08 .05
level through action planning for several values of coping planning. To test this hypothesis, behavioural intention at baseline was specified as independent variable, action planning as mediator, coping planning as moderator, age and sex as control variables and the level of PA at T2 as dependent variable. Preacher et al. (2007) recommend to estimate conditional indirect effects and to test whether these indirect effects differ from zero at specific values of the moderator using a bootstrap CI. We used the mean as well as a standard deviation above and below the mean on coping planning scale to represent moderate, high and low values of coping planning, respectively. Table 3 reports the results of the moderated mediation analysis and confirmed the second hypothesis, by revealing that the indirect effect of intention on PA level four months later through action planning is significant among adults with high levels of coping planning. The indirect effect is not significantly different from zero among adults who scored low and moderately for coping planning. Discussion Although intentions are considered as the most proximal socio-cognitive determinant of behaviour by several models, there is considerable evidence that other psychological processes operate which lead to its actual adoption or not (with regard to PA see Downs & Hausenblas, 2005). More particularly, a recent meta-analysis confirmed the importance of planning, a key process of the post-intentional phase of the HAPA (Schwarzer, 1992), to translate PA intention into action (Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013). However, although the mediational properties of action planning in the relationship between intention and PA level were clearly identified (e.g. Scholz et al., 2008; Schwarzer et al., 2007), the specific contribution of coping planning remains unclear. Given that coping planning plays a distinct role in the goal striving process (Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005), the present study aimed to test whether coping planning moderates the mediating role that action planning has in the intention–PA relationship.
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The results confirmed the first hypothesis of the present study and revealed that action planning is a partial mediator of the relationship between intention and PA level four months later, controlling for age and sex. In other words, individuals with high intentions to engage in PA were more likely to engage in PA in part because they were more likely to plan when, where and how to act. This result is in line with previous studies, which found that action planning is beneficial for the translation of intention into behaviour (e.g. Lippke et al., 2009; Wiedemann et al., 2009). However, some inconsistent results have also emerged in past studies (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 1; Schwarzer et al., 2007, Study 4), suggesting that action planning may act as mediator only under specific conditions. In this regard, the main contribution of the present study lies in the extension of the mediator model into a moderated mediation. The second hypothesis according to which the level of coping planning might hinder the putative mediation process was confirmed. The results revealed that the relationship between intention and PA level was mediated by action planning only among individuals with high levels of coping plans. One plausible explanation if that people who created coping plans are more likely to translate their good intention into PA through action planning because they can identify high-risk situations for exercise relapse (e.g. negative mood, bad weather, fatigue or social situation) and can design detailed plans which are immediately accessible to resolve these situations. In contrast, action planning does not translate intention into behaviour if people have low or moderated level of coping planning because they are not able to recognise cues related to the execution of unwanted behaviour in their everyday life. Thus, people who have good intentions and create actions plans are less likely to adopt and maintain PA because they have not prepared strategies to address exercise obstacles. Several theoretical implications emerge from the observed pattern of results. Our findings contribute to extend the literature on the identification of moderators (e.g. selfefficacy and age) in the mediation process between intention and PA through action planning (Lippke et al., 2009; Reuter et al., 2010). However, the findings indicated that the mediating role of planning in the relationship between intention and PA level was partial. Thus, other volitional variables may play a role in this relationship, such as coping self-efficacy, which refers to optimistic beliefs about one’s capability to deal with barriers that arise during the post-intentional phase and to maintain the behaviour (Luszczynska & Schwarzer, 2003). In addition, the present study is in line with recent work (e.g. Lippke et al., 2009; Wiedemann et al., 2009) that emphasised the importance of studying health behaviour change through further statistical analysis, such as moderated mediation, rather than simple mediation or moderation. These analyses provide a better understanding of behaviour change by taking into account that mediation or moderation mechanisms might differ in subgroups of participants. On a more applied perspective, the present results are in line with previous studies, which provide evidence that interventions based on both action and coping planning are useful to enhance PA level (e.g. Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005; Ziegelmann, Lippke, & Schwarzer, 2006). Indeed, in view of the results, people who have formulated good intention to adopt PA should form actions plans, but it may not be sufficient to adopt and maintain regular PA. They also need to develop coping skills to identify risk situations and anticipate coping responses. More precisely, it appears that, in the first step, interventions need to be based on action planning in combination with behavioural
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intention, because the formulation of intention enhances the likelihood that actions plans will be enacted. In the next step, once the behaviour is initiated, interventions need to be focused on the development of coping strategies to help people anticipate and manage exercise obstacles such as unexpected occupational or family tasks, or physical and mental difficulties. Some limits of the present study should be underscored. First, certain limits are due to the nature of the design used. Although prospective, the non-experimental design of the study does not allow for the test of causal relationships among the variables under consideration. The results should also be taken with caution given the assessment of planning processes and PA level at the same time point. In addition, the specification of social cognitive variables as predictors of behaviour is not the only possible explanation of the correlation. A stronger design, in line with the recommendations of Weinstein (2007), would assess action and coping planning at different time points and have an additional time point to assess PA level. Next, certain characteristics of the sample limit the generalisation of the findings. The results are specific to a limited sample of French well-educated, working adults, and are not generalisable to the entire population. The response rate and the retention rate of participants from Time 1 to Time 2 are very low and selection biases may limit the interpretation of the results. Finally, the self-reported assessment of PA can be biased by memory or overestimation phenomena, even if there is evidence for a rather satisfactory validity of self-reports measures (Prince et al., 2008). A possible way to improve PA measure is to rely on objective measures such as accelerometers. Despite these limitations, the present study highlights the complexity of the link between intention and behaviour and the distinct role played by the two forms of planning in this gap. The findings provide evidence that the presence of low or moderate level of coping planning may alter the realisation of action plans for adopting a PA. Notes 1.
2.
Other hypotheses pertaining to the complex relationships between the set of variables assessed would be worth testing, which we present here as additional analyses because they were not the scope of the present study. Firstly, we examined if action and coping planning acted as simultaneous proximal determinants of PA level. Multiple regression analysis revealed that coping planning was significantly related to PA level ( β = .25, p < .01), whereas intention ( β = .13, p = .09) and action planning ( β = .13, p = .15) were not. This finding should be taken with caution because of the design used. Indeed, the measurement of planning processes at the same time point that the behaviour could strengthen the role of coping planning in the prediction of PA at the expense of action planning. Secondly, we considered whether action planning could act as a moderator of the intention–PA relationship. The results revealed that action planning did not moderate the relationship between intention and PA level ( β = .04, p = .57). Thirdly, we tested whether a mediation of coping planning between intention and PA could be significant and dependent on individuals’ levels of action planning. The results revealed that the indirect effect of intention on PA level four months later through coping planning is only significant among adults with high level of action planning. However, this result may be also an artefact of the design used, due to the assessment of planning processes and behaviour at the same time point, and does not reflect the existing literature. In a moderating mediation model, the moderator can influence the mediation process in several ways. Thus, additional analyses were performed to test whether coping planning moderates the intention–action planning and intention–behaviour relationships. However, the result revealed that the interaction term between intention × coping planning is not related to
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J. Caudroit et al. action planning ( β = −.10, p = .14) and the interaction term between intention × coping planning is also not significantly related to PA level ( β = .01, p = .93). Thus, coping planning could only act as a moderator in the relationship between action planning and PA level.
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References Abraham, C., Sheeran, P., & Johnston, M. (1998). From health beliefs to self-regulation: Theoretical advances in the psychology of action control. Psychology & Health, 13, 569–591. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behaviour. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blacklock, R. E., Rhodes, R. E., & Brown, S. G. (2007). Relationship between regular walking, physical activity and health-related quality of life. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 4, 138–152. Carraro, N., & Gaudreau, P. (2013). Spontaneous and experimentally induced action planning and coping planning for physical activity: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14, 228–248. Chatzisarantis, N. L., & Hagger, M. S. (2007). Mindfulness and the intention–behaviour relationship within the theory of planned behaviour. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 663–676. doi:10.1177/0146167206297401 Chatzisarantis, N. L., Hagger, M. S., Smith, B., & Phoenix, C. (2004). The influences of continuation intentions on execution of social behaviour within the theory of planned behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 551–583. doi:10.1348/0144666042565399 De Bruijn, G.-J., Rhodes, R. E., & Van Osch, L. (2011). Does action planning moderate the intention-habit interaction in the exercise domain? A three-way interaction analysis investigation. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 35, 509–519. doi:10.1007/s10865-011-9380-2 Downs, D. S., & Hausenblas, H. A. (2005). The theories of reasoned action and planned behavior applied to exercise: A meta-analytic update. Journal of Physical Activity & Health, 2, 76–97. Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 70–110. Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L., & Biddle, S. J. H. (2002). A meta-analytic review of the theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour in physical activity: Predictive validity and the contribution of additional variables. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 24, 3–32. Kriska, A. M., Knowler, W. C., LaPorte, R. E., Drash, A. L., Wing, R. R., Blair, S., … Kuller, L. H. (1990). Development of questionnaire to examine relationship of physical activity and diabetes in Pima Indians. Diabetes Care, 13, 401–411. Lippke, S., Wiedemann, A. U., Ziegelmann, J. P., Reuter, T., & Schwarzer, R. (2009). Self-efficacy moderates the mediation of intentions into behaviour via plans. American Journal of Health Behaviour, 33, 521–529. Luszczynska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2003). Planning and self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of breast self-examination: A longitudinal study on self-regulatory cognitions. Psychology & Health, 18, 93–108. doi:10.1080/0887044021000019358 Luszczynska, A., Schwarzer, R., Lippke, S., & Mazurkiewicz, M. (2011). Self-efficacy as a moderator of the planning-behaviour relationship in interventions designed to promote physical activity. Psychology & Health, 26, 151–166. doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.531571 Maddux, J. E., & Rogers, R. W. (1983). Protection motivation and self-efficacy: A revised theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 469–479. McEachan, R. R. C., Conner, M., Taylor, N. T., & Lawton, R. J. (2011). Prospective prediction of health-related behaviours with the theory of planned behavior: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5, 97–144. doi:10.1080/17437199.2010.521684
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Norman, P., & Conner, M. (2005). The theory of planned behaviour and exercise: Evidence for the mediating and moderating roles of planning on intention–behaviour relationships. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 27, 488–504. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 36, 717–731. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behaviour Research Methods, 40, 879–891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879 Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioural Research, 42, 185–227. Prince, S. A., Adamo, K. B., Hamel, M. E., Hardt, J., Connor Gorber, S., & Tremblay, M. (2008). A comparison of direct versus self-report measures for assessing physical activity in adults: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity, 5, 56–80. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-5-56 Renner, B., Spivak, Y., Kwon, S., & Schwarzer, R. (2007). Does age make a difference? Predicting physical activity of South Koreans. Psychology and Aging, 22, 482–493. doi:10.1037/ 0882-7974.22.3.482 Reuter, T., Ziegelmann, J. P., Wiedemann, A. U., Lippke, S., Schuz, B., & Aiken, L. S. (2010). Planning bridges the intention–behaviour gap: Age makes a difference and strategy use explains why. Psychology & Health, 25, 873–887. doi:10.1080/08870440902939857 Scholz, U., Schüz, B., Ziegelmann, J. P., Lippke, S., & Schwarzer, R. (2008). Beyond behavioural intentions: Planning mediates between intentions and physical activity. British Journal of Health Psychology, 13, 479–494. doi:10.1348/135910707X216062 Schulz, L. O., Harper, I. T., Smith, C. J., Kriska, A. M., & Ravussin, E. (1994). Energy intake and physical activity in Pima Indians: Comparison with energy expenditure measured by doubly labeled water. Obesity Research, 2, 541–548. Schwarzer, R. (1992). Self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of health behaviours: Theoretical approaches and a new model. In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-efficacy: Thought control of action (pp. 217–243). Washington, DC: Hemisphere. Schwarzer, R. (2008). Modeling health behaviour change: How to predict and modify the adoption and maintenance of health behaviours. Applied Psychology, 57, 1–29. Schwarzer, R., Schüz, B., Ziegelmann, J. P., Lippke, S., Luszczynska, A., & Scholz, U. (2007). Adoption and maintenance of four health behaviours: Theory-guided longitudinal studies on dental flossing, seat belt use, dietary behaviour, and physical activity. Annals of Behavioural Medicine, 33, 156–166. Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445. Sniehotta, F. F. (2009). Towards a theory of intentional behaviour change: Plans, planning, and self-regulation. British Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 261–273. Retrieved from http:// dx.doi.org/10.1348/135910708X389042 Sniehotta, F. F., Scholz, U., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). Bridging the intention–behavior gap: Planning, self-efficacy and action control in the adoption and maintenance of physical exercise. Psychology & Health, 20, 143–160. doi:10.1080/08870440512331317670 Sniehotta, F. F., Schwarzer, R., Scholz, U., & Schüz, B. (2005). Action planning and coping planning for long-term lifestyle change: Theory and assessment. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 565–576. Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., & Fox, K. R. (2005). Physical activity and mental well-being typologies in corporate employees: A mixed methods approach. Work and Stress, 19, 50–67. Vuillemin, A., Oppert, J.-M., Guillemin, F., Essermeant, L., Fontvieille, A.-M., Galan, P., … Hercberg, S. (2000). Self-administered questionnaire compared with interview to assess past-
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year physical activity. Medicine and Science in Sports & Exercise, 32, 1119–1124. doi:10.1097/00005768-200006000-00013 Weinstein, N. D. (2007). Misleading tests of health behavior theories. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33, 1–10. Wiedemann, A. U., Schuz, B., Sniehotta, F. F., Scholz, U., & Schwarzer, R. (2009). Disentangling the relation between intentions, planning, and behaviour: A moderated mediation analysis. Psychology & Health, 24, 67–79. doi:10.1080/08870440801958214 World Health Organization. (2009). Global health risks: Mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. Geneva: Author. World Health Organization. (2010). Global recommendation on physical activity for health. Geneva: Author. Ziegelmann, J. P., Lipke, S., & Schwarzer, R. (2006). Adoption and maintenance of physical activity: Planning intervention in young, middle-aged, and older adults. Psychology and Health, 21, 145–163. doi:10.1080/1476832050018891
Psychology & Health Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gpsh20
The role of action and coping planning in the relationship between intention and physical activity: A moderated mediation analysis a
b
Johan Caudroit , Julie Boiché & Yannick Stephan a
b
CRIS EA 647, University of Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
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Laboratory Epsylon EA 4556, Dynamics of Human Abilities & Health Behaviours, University of Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France Accepted author version posted online: 21 Jan 2014.Published online: 17 Feb 2014.
To cite this article: Johan Caudroit, Julie Boiché & Yannick Stephan (2014) The role of action and coping planning in the relationship between intention and physical activity: A moderated mediation analysis, Psychology & Health, 29:7, 768-780, DOI: 10.1080/08870446.2014.884223 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.884223
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Psychology & Health, 2014 Vol. 29, No. 7, 768–780, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.884223
The role of action and coping planning in the relationship between intention and physical activity: A moderated mediation analysis
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Johan Caudroita*, Julie Boichéb and Yannick Stephanb a CRIS EA 647, University of Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France; bLaboratory Epsylon EA 4556, Dynamics of Human Abilities & Health Behaviours, University of Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France
(Received 21 August 2013; accepted 12 January 2014) Objective: Using a moderated mediation model, the present study investigated whether the mediation of intention into physical activity (PA) behaviour via action planning depends on the level of coping planning. Method: A four-month prospective study was conducted among 157 French adults, who were recruited through a web-based survey. They were administrated measures of behavioural intention and sociodemographic variables at baseline and action and coping planning and PA four months later. Results: Action planning partially mediated the contribution of intention on PA level. However, this indirect effect was conditional on the level of coping planning, insofar as action planning acted as a mediator of the intention–PA relationship only for individuals with high level of coping planning. Conclusion: The results highlight the complexity of the relationship between intention and behaviour and provide evidence for the distinct role of both forms of planning. Keywords: intention; planning; physical activity; moderated mediation
It is well established that regular participation in physical activity (PA) is an effective way to prevent the development of chronic diseases and certain types of cancer (World Health Organization, 2009), and to promote psychological well-being (ThøgersenNtoumani & Fox, 2005) and health-related quality of life (Blacklock, Rhodes, & Brown, 2007) in the general population. However, although many individuals are aware of health benefits of regular PA and intend to be physically active, most of them fail to optimise or enhance their level of PA. Thus, the present study aims to provide an in-depth identification of the processes explaining the intention–behaviour gap. Socio-cognitive determinants of PA Social cognitive models, such as the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) and the Protection Motivation Theory (Maddux & Rogers, 1983), assume that an individual’s intention to adopt a given behaviour, defined as the amount of effort one is willing to exert to attain a goal (Ajzen, 1991), is the most proximal predictor of actual behaviour. However, intentions often fail to be translated into behaviour (Gollwitzer & *Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] © 2014 Taylor & Francis
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Sheeran, 2006; Schwarzer, 2008; Sniehotta, Scholz, & Schwarzer, 2005). Reviews and meta-analyses showed that intentions only explain 20–30% of the variance in PA behaviour (Downs & Hausenblas, 2005; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002; McEachan, Conner, Taylor, & Lawton, 2011). To understand why some people succeed in translating their intention to engage in PA into actual PA behaviour whereas others do not, individual differences in post-intentional processes of goal pursuit should be considered (Abraham, Sheeran, & Johnston, 1998). The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA; Schwarzer, 1992) was precisely developed to address the intention– behaviour gap by including, in a volitional phase, post-intentional determinants of behaviour, such as planning constructs (Schwarzer, 2008). A recent meta-analysis on 19 correlational and 21 experimental studies confirmed the importance of planning processes in bridging the gap between intentions and behaviour (Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013). The concept of planning can be subdivided into two facets, namely action and coping planning. Action planning is an extension of intention formation that includes specific situation parameters and a sequence of action (Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005). People remember their intentions better when they are specified in a when, where and how to act. Coping planning refers to anticipating difficulties or barriers that might hinder the implementation of one’s behaviour intention and includes strategies to overcome such difficulties (Sniehotta, Schwarzer, Scholz, & Schüz, 2005). People imagine scenarios that hinder them in performing the intended behaviour and they develop one or several plans to cope with such challenging situations. Sniehotta, Scholz et al. (2005) found that cardiac patients who were encouraged to make both action and coping plans were significantly more successful in exercising than patients who were told to make action plans only. Although action and coping planning were previously found to act as partial mediators of the intention–behaviour relationship (Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013), some scholars have suggested that action planning exerts its influence earlier in the behaviour change process than coping planning (Sniehotta, 2009; Sniehotta, Schwarzer et al., 2005). More precisely, it may be that once individuals have created action plans to support their intentions, they create additional coping plans to support not only their intention but also their action plans (Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013). In line with these studies, the present study aimed to examine, first, the potential mediating role of action planning in the intention–PA level relationship and, additionally, the potential moderating role of coping planning in the relationship between action planning and PA level. Action planning as mediator of the intention–behaviour relationship Although action planning could act as a moderator of the relationship between intention and behaviour in the exercise domain (e.g. De Bruijn, Rhodes, & Van Osch, 2011), the majority of past studies found that action planning mediates the relationship between intention and PA level (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 2; Scholz, Schüz, Ziegelmann, Lippke, & Schwarzer, 2008; Schwarzer et al., 2007, Study 1–3; Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005). This result suggests that individuals with higher intentions are more likely to plan where, when and how to exercise and that, in turn, these action plans are more likely to translate intentions into actual PA. However, other studies have failed to find a significant mediation of the intention–behaviour relationship through action planning (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 1; Schwarzer et al., 2007, Study 4).
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These inconsistent findings suggest that the interplay between intention, planning and behaviour might depend upon other factors. Previous correlational studies have identified several moderators of the relationship between planning and PA, such as chronological age (Renner, Spivak, Kwon, & Schwarzer, 2007; Reuter et al., 2010), level of intention itself (Wiedemann, Schuz, Sniehotta, Scholz, & Schwarzer, 2009) and PA self-efficacy beliefs (Lippke, Wiedemann, Ziegelmann, Reuter, & Schwarzer, 2009; Luszczynska, Schwarzer, Lippke, & Mazurkiewicz, 2011). Statistically speaking, this represents a case of moderated mediation (Preacher, Rucker, & Hayes, 2007). This line of research is innovative because the identification of potential moderators might explain the inconsistent results of previous studies regarding the role of action planning as a mediator between intention and PA level (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 1; Schwarzer et al., 2007). However, these studies have mainly focused on the mediational role of action planning and have neglected the contribution of coping planning in the interplay between intention, action planning and behaviour. Coping planning as moderator of the action planning–behaviour relationship The literature evoked two distinct points of view regarding the role of coping planning in the relationship between intention and PA. HAPA (Schwarzer, 1992, 2008) posits that action and coping plans act simultaneously as proximal determinants of the behaviour, whereas Sniehotta, Scholz et al. (2005) argue that action planning temporally precedes coping planning. In line with Sniehotta, Scholz et al. (2005), action plans would exert their influence earlier in the behaviour change process by facilitating the initiation of action, whether coping planning would exert its influence later in the behaviour change, thanks to the identification of relevant barriers and strategies to overcome them. Thus, people, who have intention to engage in PA and have created actions plans, might fail to enhance their PA level because they have not anticipated potential barriers. Coping planning, which may play a distinct role in the behaviour change process, could be reconsidered as a potential moderator in a moderation mediation model from intention to action planning to PA level (see Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013). Indeed, if a person with strong intention to engage in PA succeeds in elaborating action plans to support these intentions, but fails to overcome potential obstacles that will stand in front of her, and to cope with difficulties by anticipating risk situations, she is less likely to adopt and maintain PA, compared to a person with strong PA intention, who has elaborated actions plans and has acquired sufficient resources to identify and overcome potential barriers. The present study Drawing upon the post-intentional phase of the HAPA model (Schwarzer, 1992), the aim of the present study is to further extend research in investigating individual differences in the gap between intention and behaviour by examining whether action planning mediates the effect of behavioural intention on level of PA four months later as a function of the underlying levels of coping planning, controlling for age and sex. We formulated two hypotheses to test this moderated mediation model (see Figure 1).1
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Figure 1. Overview of the hypotheses examined in the study. Note: PA = Physical activity. Hypothesis 1: In line with previous studies (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 2; Scholz et al., 2008; Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005), it was suggested that the positive relationship between intention and level of PA four months later is mediated by action planning. In other words, higher level of intention to engage in PA is likely to be related to higher level of action planning, which may in turn be associated with higher level of PA. Hypothesis 2: In line with previous research investigating moderation mediation models (Lippke et al., 2009; Reuter et al., 2010; Wiedemann et al., 2009), it was hypothesised that the strength of the mediation of action planning in the relationship between intention and level of PA is stronger in people with high levels of coping planning than those with low levels of coping planning.
Method Participants and procedure Participants were personnel working at a French University, who were invited, via email, to take part in a two-wave survey on lifestyle among adults. To begin with, a message gave them information on the aim of the study – i.e. to gather information about their leisure activities – and they were informed that their participation was completely anonymous and voluntary. The study was approved by the University Departmental Ethics Committee. A link embedded in the email presentation of the study took them directly to the first online survey (Time 1), which assessed demographic characteristics (i.e. age, sex, marital status, education level and occupational status) and intention to engage in PA during the next four months. Four months later, a new email was sent to the 408 individuals who had filled out the first survey, containing a link to the second online survey (Time 2), to obtain information about action and coping planning and level of PA during the last four months. The final sample was composed of 157 participants (54 men and 103 women) who
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completed both Time 1 and Time 2 questionnaires. The mean age of the sample was 38.68 years (SD = 10.69 years), ranging from 23 to 70 years. Of the sample, 75.2% was living with a partner and 24.8% was living alone. Considering education attainment, 2.5% had basic school learning qualification, 9.6% had high school diploma and 87.9% had university undergraduate degree. Our sample was divided into 47.1% of academic professions, 28% of intermediate professions, 19.1% of administrative staff and 5.8% of other professions. The retention rate of participants from Time 1 to 2 of 38.48% is slightly lower than the rate observed in similar studies (Renner et al., 2007; Reuter et al., 2010). Participants who were lost to the follow-up (n = 251) were compared with those who were retained (n = 157) on all baseline variables. No significant differences were found with regard to gender, χ2(1) = 1.04, p = .30, or behavioural intention, F(1406) = 1.30, p = 0.25. However, individuals in the final sample were significantly younger (M = 38.68; SD = 10.69) than those who provided data at T1 but not T2 (M = 42; SD = 10.64), F(1, 406) = 9.68, p < .01. Measures Intention In line with previous studies (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2007; Chatzisarantis, Hagger, Smith, & Phoenix, 2004), intentions to engage in PA were assessed using four items (e.g. ‘I intend to exercise for at least five times a week for 30 min each time’ or ‘I’ll try to be physically active for at least five times a week for 30 min each time’). These items were based on the global PA recommendation for health (World Health Organization, 2010). Responses were made on 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (exactly true). Higher score indicated higher levels of behavioural intention (α = .93). Planning Self-reported planning was assessed using the two subscales proposed by Sniehotta, Scholz et al. (2005). Responses were made on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true). Action planning was measured by five items (α = .91). The item stem ‘During the past four months, I have made a detailed plan regarding …’ was followed by: ‘… (a) When to do my exercise, (b) Where to do my exercise, (c) How to exercise, (d) How often to exercise and (e) With whom to exercise’. Coping planning was measured by four items (α = .87). The item stem ‘I have made a detailed plan regarding …’ was followed by: ‘… (a) What to do if something intervenes, (b) When to especially watch out in order to stay committed, (c) What to do if I miss an exercise session and (d) What to do in difficult situations in order to stick to my intentions’. Physical activity The measure of PA was adapted from the French version of the Modifiable Activity Questionnaire (MAQ, Vuillemin et al., 2000). Participants identified all physical activities regularly performed on a pre-established list of 48 activities (e.g. swimming, running, cycling, gymnastics, etc.) during the past four months at Time 2. In particular, participants specified the frequency and duration for each activity identified. The
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product of frequency and duration was computed to obtain an index of total time spent exercising expressed in minutes per week, which was used as PA score. The accuracy (i.e. both validity and reliability) of the MAQ has been previously reported (Kriska et al., 1990; Schulz, Harper, Smith, Kriska, & Ravussin, 1994). Spearman correlation coefficients of test and 1–3 week retest comprised between .88 and .92 (Kriska et al., 1990). Past-year PA was shown to be significantly related to past-week activity (r = .69, p < .05) measured by activity monitors (Kriska et al., 1990) and to total energy expenditure (r = .56, p < .05) measured by the doubly labelled water method (Schulz et al., 1994). Results Means, standard deviations, kurtosis, skewness and Pearson’s correlation coefficients between the variables of the study are presented in Table 1. Hypothesis 1: action planning as a mediator in the intention–behaviour relationship To test the significance of the indirect effect of behavioural intention on level of PA, through action planning, we used the SPSS macro for indirect effect provided by Preacher and Hayes (2004). This macro facilitates the implementation of a bootstrapping method, which does not impose distributional assumptions. This represents a considerable advantage, because the assumption that the indirect effect is normally distributed is often violated (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). In order to test the mediational effect of action planning in the relationship between intention and PA, three steps must be achieved. First, the relationship between the independent variable (IV; intention) and dependent variable (DV; level of PA) is examined; second, the relationship between intention (IV) and the mediator (action planning) is tested; and third, the relationship of both IV (intention) and mediator (action planning) on DV (PA) is evaluated, taking into account relevant covariates (i.e. age and sex), to test for indirect effect. The indirect effect was quantified as the product of the mean bootstrapped sample estimates (N = 5000) of the regression coefficients. The macro provided bootstrapped confidence intervals (CIs) around these indirect effects. Point estimates of indirect effects were considered significant when zero was not contained in any CI (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Table 2 reports the results of the mediation analysis. In line with Hypothesis 1, positive and significant paths were found from intention to action planning ( β = .26, p < .01) and from action planning to PA level ( β = .27, p < .01). The bootstrap procedure revealed that the total contribution of intention on the level of PA four months later was significant ( β = .22, p < .01), but became non-significant ( β = .15, p = .07) when action planning was included in the model. This suggests that the contribution of behavioural intention on PA level is mediated by action planning. The results of the bootstrapping analysis confirmed that the indirect contribution of intentions on PA level through action planning was significant with a point estimate of 3.34 [95% CI: 1.12–6.97]. Hypothesis 2: coping planning moderates the mediating effect of action planning in the intention–behaviour relationship2 We used the SPSS macro for moderated mediation analysis (Model 3; Preacher & Hayes, 2004; Preacher et al., 2007) to compute the indirect effect of intention on PA
Age Sex Intention AP CP PA
38.68 – 4.08 2.75 2.23 87.77
M
10.69 – 2.24 1.06 .98 108.20
SD 23–70 – 1–7 1–4 1–4 0–480
Range .57 – −.04 −.45 .24 1.29
Kewness
The scores of PA level are expressed in minutes per week.
Notes: PA = Physical activity; CP = Coping planning; AP = Action planning.
***
p < .01. p < .001.
**
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Variables
1 – −.93 −.13 −.08 −.07 −.12
Kurtosis −.51 – −1.49 −1.18 −1.20 1.09
Table 1. Observed correlations and other characteristics of the variables in the model (N = 157).
– −.06 .08 .07 .00
2
– .26*** .26*** .23**
3
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– .59*** .31***
4
– .36***
5
–
6
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Table 2. Mediation analyses of intention on physical activity level via action planning. β
Variables
p
−.09 −.02 .15 .22 .27
Age Sex Intention (Total effect) Action planning (Indirect effect)
.32 .82 .07 .01 .00 [1.12–6.97]
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Note: PA = Physical activity.
Table 3. Bootstrapped mediation effects of intentions on physical activity via action planning at specific values of coping planning. Coping planning −1 SD Mean + 1 SD
Indirect effect 0.17 2.69 5.28
SE
z
p
1.38 1.53 2.61
0.12 1.76 2.00
.90 .08 .05
level through action planning for several values of coping planning. To test this hypothesis, behavioural intention at baseline was specified as independent variable, action planning as mediator, coping planning as moderator, age and sex as control variables and the level of PA at T2 as dependent variable. Preacher et al. (2007) recommend to estimate conditional indirect effects and to test whether these indirect effects differ from zero at specific values of the moderator using a bootstrap CI. We used the mean as well as a standard deviation above and below the mean on coping planning scale to represent moderate, high and low values of coping planning, respectively. Table 3 reports the results of the moderated mediation analysis and confirmed the second hypothesis, by revealing that the indirect effect of intention on PA level four months later through action planning is significant among adults with high levels of coping planning. The indirect effect is not significantly different from zero among adults who scored low and moderately for coping planning. Discussion Although intentions are considered as the most proximal socio-cognitive determinant of behaviour by several models, there is considerable evidence that other psychological processes operate which lead to its actual adoption or not (with regard to PA see Downs & Hausenblas, 2005). More particularly, a recent meta-analysis confirmed the importance of planning, a key process of the post-intentional phase of the HAPA (Schwarzer, 1992), to translate PA intention into action (Carraro & Gaudreau, 2013). However, although the mediational properties of action planning in the relationship between intention and PA level were clearly identified (e.g. Scholz et al., 2008; Schwarzer et al., 2007), the specific contribution of coping planning remains unclear. Given that coping planning plays a distinct role in the goal striving process (Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005), the present study aimed to test whether coping planning moderates the mediating role that action planning has in the intention–PA relationship.
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The results confirmed the first hypothesis of the present study and revealed that action planning is a partial mediator of the relationship between intention and PA level four months later, controlling for age and sex. In other words, individuals with high intentions to engage in PA were more likely to engage in PA in part because they were more likely to plan when, where and how to act. This result is in line with previous studies, which found that action planning is beneficial for the translation of intention into behaviour (e.g. Lippke et al., 2009; Wiedemann et al., 2009). However, some inconsistent results have also emerged in past studies (Norman & Conner, 2005, Study 1; Schwarzer et al., 2007, Study 4), suggesting that action planning may act as mediator only under specific conditions. In this regard, the main contribution of the present study lies in the extension of the mediator model into a moderated mediation. The second hypothesis according to which the level of coping planning might hinder the putative mediation process was confirmed. The results revealed that the relationship between intention and PA level was mediated by action planning only among individuals with high levels of coping plans. One plausible explanation if that people who created coping plans are more likely to translate their good intention into PA through action planning because they can identify high-risk situations for exercise relapse (e.g. negative mood, bad weather, fatigue or social situation) and can design detailed plans which are immediately accessible to resolve these situations. In contrast, action planning does not translate intention into behaviour if people have low or moderated level of coping planning because they are not able to recognise cues related to the execution of unwanted behaviour in their everyday life. Thus, people who have good intentions and create actions plans are less likely to adopt and maintain PA because they have not prepared strategies to address exercise obstacles. Several theoretical implications emerge from the observed pattern of results. Our findings contribute to extend the literature on the identification of moderators (e.g. selfefficacy and age) in the mediation process between intention and PA through action planning (Lippke et al., 2009; Reuter et al., 2010). However, the findings indicated that the mediating role of planning in the relationship between intention and PA level was partial. Thus, other volitional variables may play a role in this relationship, such as coping self-efficacy, which refers to optimistic beliefs about one’s capability to deal with barriers that arise during the post-intentional phase and to maintain the behaviour (Luszczynska & Schwarzer, 2003). In addition, the present study is in line with recent work (e.g. Lippke et al., 2009; Wiedemann et al., 2009) that emphasised the importance of studying health behaviour change through further statistical analysis, such as moderated mediation, rather than simple mediation or moderation. These analyses provide a better understanding of behaviour change by taking into account that mediation or moderation mechanisms might differ in subgroups of participants. On a more applied perspective, the present results are in line with previous studies, which provide evidence that interventions based on both action and coping planning are useful to enhance PA level (e.g. Sniehotta, Scholz et al., 2005; Ziegelmann, Lippke, & Schwarzer, 2006). Indeed, in view of the results, people who have formulated good intention to adopt PA should form actions plans, but it may not be sufficient to adopt and maintain regular PA. They also need to develop coping skills to identify risk situations and anticipate coping responses. More precisely, it appears that, in the first step, interventions need to be based on action planning in combination with behavioural
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intention, because the formulation of intention enhances the likelihood that actions plans will be enacted. In the next step, once the behaviour is initiated, interventions need to be focused on the development of coping strategies to help people anticipate and manage exercise obstacles such as unexpected occupational or family tasks, or physical and mental difficulties. Some limits of the present study should be underscored. First, certain limits are due to the nature of the design used. Although prospective, the non-experimental design of the study does not allow for the test of causal relationships among the variables under consideration. The results should also be taken with caution given the assessment of planning processes and PA level at the same time point. In addition, the specification of social cognitive variables as predictors of behaviour is not the only possible explanation of the correlation. A stronger design, in line with the recommendations of Weinstein (2007), would assess action and coping planning at different time points and have an additional time point to assess PA level. Next, certain characteristics of the sample limit the generalisation of the findings. The results are specific to a limited sample of French well-educated, working adults, and are not generalisable to the entire population. The response rate and the retention rate of participants from Time 1 to Time 2 are very low and selection biases may limit the interpretation of the results. Finally, the self-reported assessment of PA can be biased by memory or overestimation phenomena, even if there is evidence for a rather satisfactory validity of self-reports measures (Prince et al., 2008). A possible way to improve PA measure is to rely on objective measures such as accelerometers. Despite these limitations, the present study highlights the complexity of the link between intention and behaviour and the distinct role played by the two forms of planning in this gap. The findings provide evidence that the presence of low or moderate level of coping planning may alter the realisation of action plans for adopting a PA. Notes 1.
2.
Other hypotheses pertaining to the complex relationships between the set of variables assessed would be worth testing, which we present here as additional analyses because they were not the scope of the present study. Firstly, we examined if action and coping planning acted as simultaneous proximal determinants of PA level. Multiple regression analysis revealed that coping planning was significantly related to PA level ( β = .25, p < .01), whereas intention ( β = .13, p = .09) and action planning ( β = .13, p = .15) were not. This finding should be taken with caution because of the design used. Indeed, the measurement of planning processes at the same time point that the behaviour could strengthen the role of coping planning in the prediction of PA at the expense of action planning. Secondly, we considered whether action planning could act as a moderator of the intention–PA relationship. The results revealed that action planning did not moderate the relationship between intention and PA level ( β = .04, p = .57). Thirdly, we tested whether a mediation of coping planning between intention and PA could be significant and dependent on individuals’ levels of action planning. The results revealed that the indirect effect of intention on PA level four months later through coping planning is only significant among adults with high level of action planning. However, this result may be also an artefact of the design used, due to the assessment of planning processes and behaviour at the same time point, and does not reflect the existing literature. In a moderating mediation model, the moderator can influence the mediation process in several ways. Thus, additional analyses were performed to test whether coping planning moderates the intention–action planning and intention–behaviour relationships. However, the result revealed that the interaction term between intention × coping planning is not related to
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