WORK A Journal of Prevention,
Assessment & Rehabilitation
ELSEVIER
Work 6 (I 996) 115-126
Time use, time management and academic achievement among occupational therapy students Alexis D. Henrya,1, Charlene Costab , Donna Ladd b , Claudine Robertson b , J ames Rollins b, Lea Roy b a Department of Psychiatry,
University of Massachusetts Medical Center, Worcester, MA, USA "Worcester State College, Worcester, MA, USA
Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine time use patterns and variables related to time use, including feelings about time use, time management, and academic achievement, among normal college students. Time use was examined from the perspective of the model of human occupation. One hundred and six male and female occupational therapy students enrolled at Worcester State College in Worcester, MA completed two sdf-report questionnaires and a demographic questionnaire. The subjects completed the Occupational Questionnaire (Riopd Smith, Kidhofner, and Watts, 1986) which measured time use (activities engaged in during a typical 24-h period), and feelings about time use (related to competence, value, enjoyment) for the activities they reported. In addition, they completed the Time Management Questionnaire (Britton and Tesser, 1991), which measured their time attitudes, preferences for short range planning, and preferences for long range planning. The results of the study suggest that older students and those experiencing role overload perceive themselves as iess competent, and value and enjoy their time use less than younger students and those with fewer role demands. In addition, the use of time management was related to academic achievement. Implications of the findings are discussed.
Keywords: Roles; Role overload; Habits; Model of human occupation; Perceived control; Perceived competence
1. Introduction
Time use patterns of undergraduate college students are influenced by many factors. Students
* Corresponding author. IAlexis D. Henry at the time of this study, was Assistant Professor of Occupational Therapy, Worcester State College, Worcester, MA.
must handle the multiple tasks associated with the academic role. In addition, today's students often occupy other roles (e.g. worker, spouse, parent) which present them with additional task requirements. Successfully managing the multiple tasks associated with the student role and other roles would seem to require efficient and effective use of time. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among time use pat-
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A.D. Henry et (1/. / Work 6 (J 996) 115-126
terns, feeling about time use, time management behaviors, and academic achievement among occupational therapy students. 'Time management' is a construct that has received considerable attention in the popular literature, although empirical research examining the relationship of time management behaviors to other variables is limited. Time management has been defined as 'clusters of behavior that facilitate productivity and alleviate stress' (Lay and Schouwenburg, 1993, p. 648). The ability to manage time effectively is believed to result in the accomplishment of tasks and goals with less stress and greater efficiency, satisfaction, and health. Although different time management strategies exist, in essence the process of time management involves identifying needs and wants in order of importance and matching them with the available time resources (Macan, Shah ani, Dipboye and Phillips, 1990; Schuler, 1979). Investigators who have attempted to ope rationalize time management have argued that it is a multidimensional construct, involving task-oriented behaviors such as setting goals, making lists and schedules, and organizing work space, as well as beliefs that one can control how one's time is spent, and a preference for organization (Macan, et aI., 1990; Britton and Tesser, 1991). The relationship of time management to academic achievement among college students has been examined by behavioral researchers. While the use of task-oriented time management behaviors has been found to positively correlate with grade point average, even stronger correlations have been found between beliefs about time control and academic achievement (Aspinwall and Taylor, 1992; Britton and Tesser, 1991; Macan, et aI., 1990). Moreover, students who report a greater sense of control over time also report less stress, less role ambiguity and role overload, and greater work and life satisfaction (Macan, et aI., 1990). In a more recent study Macan (1994) proposes that it is perceived control of time that is the factor most predictive of positive outcomes such as decreased stress and satisfaction. She proposes that it is not the time management behaviors, per se, that result in these more positive outcomes, but it is the heightened sense of control over time which these behaviors afford. Macan (1994) found
that individuals who set goals and priorities and had a preference for organization perceived themselves as having greater control over their time than individuals who did not have these characteristics. She also found that perceived control over time was related to job satisfaction and reduced stress. Another study (Bond and Feather, 1988) found that students who reported more structure and purpose in their time also reported psychological well being, optimism about the future, more efficient study habits, fewer somatic symptoms and less depression than students who report less structure and purpose. Few studies have examined the relationship of other life role demands (e.g. employment and parenthood) to the use of time management behaviors and academic achievement among college students. Macan and colleagues (1990) proposed that employed students, in order to handle the multiple demands of work and school, may utilize more time management behaviors than students who do not work. However, they found no relationship between increased role demand (working and being a student) and either academic achievement or the use of time management behaviors. They did, however, find that students with increased role demand experienced more psychological and physical stress and less life and work satisfaction. Although the specific term 'time management' is rarely found in the occupational therapy literature, the temporal dimensions of human behavior have historically been part of the field's knowledge base and domain of concern (Kielhofner, 1977; Meyer, 1922/1977). This concern was articulated by Kielhofner in his 1977 paper, when he coined the term 'temporal adaptation'. Temporal adaptation refers, in part, to an individual's ability to organize time around role demands and to develop a range of relatively consistent, routinized behaviors (i.e. habits) that support role performance. Influencing the organization of time are an individual's goals, values and interests which provide direction and meaning for role and habit behavior (Kielhofner, 1977). More recently, Kielhofner (1995) has elaborated on the temporal dimensions of human behavior in the model of human occupation. The model of human occupation views' occupational role behav-
A.D. Henry et at. / Work 6 (1996) 115-126
ior, in part, as the product of three interrelated subsystems of a dynamic human system (Kielhofner, 1995). While the volition subsystem is that aspect of the individual responsible for choosing occupation, and the performance subsystem is responsible for producing occupation, the habituation subsystem is concerned with organizing occupation into patterns and routines. A person's roles and habits are those patterned and routinized occupational behaviors to which much of daily time use is devoted (Kielhofner, 1995). Kielhofner (1995) describes habits as latent tendencies to behave in a particular way. Habits are acquired through repetition, operate at a largely preconscious level, and optimally, function to support competent occupational role performance. An occupational role is an acquired and learned position within a social group that organizes behavior via both internal and external expectations for performance. Common occupational roles include worker, student, homemaker, caregiver, friend, family member and hobbyist (Kielhofner, 1995). Applying these definitions, time management strategies could be conceived of as one type of habit that supports occupational role performance. According to the model, each subsystem exerts influence on and is influenced by the other subsystems. For example, a person's volition subsystem, that is her sense of control and competence, her values related to occupational roles, and the specific occupational preferences she has, can influence her habituated behavior and conversely, role and habit behavior can influence an individual's sense of control. Thus, an individual who has too many role demands competing for limited time resources may experience role overload, and may feel a decreased sense of control and satisfaction (Barris, Kielhofner and Watts, 1988). As previously noted, Macan and colleagues (1990) found that feelings of control and satisfaction were negatively related to increased role demands. The consistent and effective use of time management strategies (i.e. habits) may help an individual feel a greater sense of control and satisfaction. Further, as the model of human occupation suggests, effective habits should contribute to more competent role performance. One measure of competent role performance among
117
college students is grade point average, which has been found to correlate with the use of time management strategies (Britton and Tesser, 1991). Despite the historical concern with time and the relationship of time use to overall health and well-being, within occupational therapy the attempts to empirically examine temporal behavior have been limited. A few occupational therapy researchers have attempted to examine the temporal behavior of individuals with various disabilities or disorders (e.g. Kielhofner, 1979; Weeder, 1986; Neville-Jan, 1994; Suto and Frank, 1994). However, more preliminary descriptive studies of time use among normal individuals are lacking in the field. The purpose of the present study is to examine time use patterns, and variables related to time use, among a group of normal individuals (occupational therapy students). This study examines some of the' assumptions made by the model of human occupation related to habituated behavior; specifically the notion that habits (in this case, time management strategies) support .occupational role behavior. Occupational role behavior is operationalized by the subjects' time use (reflecting role engagement), by feelings about time use (i.e. competence, value and enjoyment [volition subsystem)), and a more concrete measure of occupational role competence for these subjects, namely academic achievement (grade point average). 2. Method 2.1. Subjects
One hundred and six undergraduate students enrolled in the undergraduate occupational therapy program at Worcester State College in Massachusetts volunteered to participate in the study. The ages of the subjects ranged from 17 to 47, 86.3% were females and 13.7% were males. All subjects were approached at the beginning of a class and given a six-page booklet. The booklet contained a consent form, a demographic form, instructions for completing two questionnaires, the Occupational Questionnaire (OQ), and the Time Management Questionnaire (TMQ). Com-
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A.D. Henry et a/. / Work 6 (J996) 115-126
pleting the questionnaires took an average of 30 mins.
90% agreement on how person's classified activities. These findings suggest that the occupational questionnaire is a reliable and valid measure.
2.2. Instruments
2. 2.1. Demographic data Data regarding age, gender, academic year, marital status, parental status (nonparent/parent), number of children, employment status (not employed/employed), living situation (on-campus/commuter), and grade point average were collected via self-report. An additional variable called 'role demand' was created from these data. Subjects were considered to have 'low role demand' if they were students only, 'moderate role demand' if they were students and workers or students and parents, and 'high role demand' if they were students, workers and parents. 2.2.2. The Occupational Questionnaire (OQ) The OQ was used to measure time use patterns during a typical day and feelings about time use, and thus taps aspects of the habituation (time use) and volition (feelings about time use) subsystems (Smith, Kielhofner, and Watts, 1986). To complete the OQ, subjects were asked to indicate their main activity during each half hour of a typical weekday (time use), and to classify each activity as either work, school, activity of daily living (ADL), recreation or rest. Subjects were then asked to rate each activity using a 5-point Likert-type scale, indicating how well they do the activity (competence), how important the activity is (value), and how enjoyable the activity is (enjoyment). Smith and colleague (1986) report the results of a pilot study to examine reliability and validity of the OQ. Test-retest reliability was examined with 20 elderly adults. Sixty-eight percent of a typical days activities reported during the first administration were again reported during the same time period of the second administration. There was also 87% agreement for type of activity, 77% for activity competency, 81% for activity value, and 77% for activity enjoyment. A study of concurrent validity (Riopel Smith, et ai., 1986), using the Household Work Study Diary yielded 82% agreement in configuration of activities and 97% and
2.2.3. The Time Management Questionnaire (TMQ) A shortened version (17 items) of the TMQ, described by Britton and Tesser (1991), was used in this study to measure time management. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale, with a higher score indicating better time management. The TMQ is. divided into three subscales. The 'short range planning' subscale reflects subject's use of task-oriented time management behaviors (e.g. making a list for that day). The 'time attitudes' subscale taps the subjects sense of control and constructive use of time. The 'long range planning' subscale is an indicator of the subject's preference for organization and tendency to set relatively longer range goals (e.g. setting goals for the semester). An overall time management score can be obtained by calculating a mean of the 17 items. Britton and Tesser (1991) report results of a principal components analysis verifying the structure of these three subscales (factors). Item loadings on the factors ranged from 0.42 to 0.79. Using data from the present study, internal consistency estimates were 0.75 for the total score, and 0.74, 0.56, and 0.46 for the short range planning, time attitude and long range planning subscales, respectively. In addition to the three subscales and the total score, a single item - control of time -- was also used in the data analysis. 3. Results
Demographic characteristics of the sample are reported in Table 1. The mean age of subjects was 25.6 years; 40% of subjects were over 25. A majority of the subjects were female (83.6%), were commuter students (71.8%), and most were employed at least part-time (76%). Over 1/4 of the subjects were parents. 'Role demand' was moderate to high for the majority of subjects. Only 15 individuals occupied the student role alone. This is notable because the overwhelming majority of these subjects were full-time students. Mean grade point average was quite high for these subjects (3.51 on a scale of 1-4).
A.D. Henry et al. / Work 6 (1996) 115-126
119
Intercorrelations among demographic characteristics, grade point average (GPA), time use and feelings about time use variables, and time management variables are presented in Table 3. PearAge M = 25.6, S.D. = 7.7, range "~ 17-47 (missing n = 3) son product-moment correlation coefficients were used to examine intercorrelations among all variGender 14 (13.7%) male 88 (86.3%) female ables. (missing n = 4) As would be expected, there were many significant correlations among the demographic variAcademic year 26 (24.5%) freshman 41 (38.7%) sophomore ables. Older subjects were more likely to be mar21 (19.8%) junior ried, to be parents, to be commuter students, and 18 (17.0%) senior to have higher role demand than younger subMarital status 57 (54.3%) single jects. Several of the demographic variables corre48 (45.7%) married/significant other lated significantly with the time-related variables (missing n = I) (i.e. time use, feelings about time use, and time Parental status 78 (73.6%) non-parent management). Among the most notable were the 28 (26.4%) parent correlations between age and the time-related Mean number of children M = 2.14, range = 1-5 (among parents) variables, and the correlations between parental status and number of children and the time-reEmployment status 25 (24%) not employed lated variable. Older subjects reported spending 79 (i6%) employed (missing n = 2) significantly more time in activities of daily living (ADL) and significantly less time in rest than 15 (14.4%) low Role demand 73 (70.2%) moderate younger subjects. In addition, older subjects re16 (J 5.4%) high ported feeling significantly less competent in time (missing n = 2) use, valued and enjoyed time use less, and felt 29 (28.2%) on-campus Living situation themselves to have less control over their time 74 (71.8%) commuter than their younger counterparts. A similar pat(missing n = 3) tern was found regarding parental status and/or GPA M = 3.51, S.D. = 0.29, range = 2.5-4.0 number of children. Subjects who were parents (Missing, n = 15) spent more time in ADL, less time in rest, felt Role demand: low student only, moderate = student + less competent in time use, and felt less control employed or student + parent, high = student + employed + over their time than subjects who were not parparent; GPA = grade point average. ents. Feelings of competence were most strongly negatively related to number of children; thus, the more children these subjects had, the less Table 2 shows means and standard deviations competent in time use they were likely to feel. for the three sets of time-related variables Despite feeling less competent, older subjects and time use, feelings about time use, and time manthose who were parents were significantly more agement - for the subjects by academic year. likely to report higher grade point averages than Across all academic years, subjects reported younger, non-parent subjects. spending the largest percentage of their non-rest Engagement in the worker role was related to time in school. Except for the amount of time academic achievement, as well as to how subjects spent in rest, there ..yere no significant differences used their time and felt about time. Subjects who among subjects in different academic years for were employed reported lower grade point averany of these variables. ANOVA and post-hoc analyses revealed a significant difference (P = ages than non-employed subjects. Subjects who 0.05) between freshmen and juniors for the spent greater amounts of time at work valued and amount of time spent in rest. enjoyed hme less than those who spent less time Table I Demographic characteristil'S of sample of occupational therapy students (n = 106)
A.D. Henry et al. / Work 6 (1996) 115-126
120
Table 2 Mean scores for time use, feelings about time use, and time management for subjects by academic year Freshman
en = 26)
---_._-
Sophomore en ~ 41)
Junior = 21)
Senior
en
en = 18)
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
10% 28% 18% 12% 34%
0.15 0.10 0.14 0.08 0.05
15% 28% 15% 10% 32%
0.14 0.12 0.07 0.09 0.09
14% 30% 18% 11% 27%
0.15 0.12 0.08 0.10 0.12
08% 27% 20% 15% 30%
0.09 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.08
4.2 4.5 4.0
0.48 0.39 0.47
4.1 4.2 3.9
0.41 0.44 0.39
4.1 4.3 4.0
0.40 0.35 0.40
4.2 4.4 4.2
0.42 0.29 0.26
3.6 3.5 3.4 3.2 3.3
0.85 0.53 0.74 0.65 0.49
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.2 3.4
0.89 0.49 0.63 0.57 0.39
3.1 3.4 3.3 3.0 3.2
1.2 0.42 0.74 0.62 0.50
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.3
0.87 0.51 0.48 0.42 0.41
Time use Work School ADL Recreation Rest*
Feelings about time use Competence Value Enjoyment
Time management Control of time Time attitude Short range planning Long range planning Total
:u
Time use: values reflect percentage of total time spent in work, school, ADL, recreation, and rest; Feelings about time use: scores range from 1-5, low score = low feelings of competence, value, or enjoyment, high score = high feelings of competence, value. or enjoyment; Time management: scores range from 1 to 5, low score = low use of time management, high sc(m: = high use of time management; * significant difference was found at the 0.05 level between freshman and juniors for rest.
at work. Conversely, time spent in recreation was positively correlated with value and enjoyment. Commuter students differed from students who lived on campus in time use. Commuter students (who were more likely to be older, to be employed, to be parents, and thus, to have higher role demand) spent more time in work, more time in ADL, and less time in rest than students who lived on campus. For the most part, the correlations between the time management variables and the other timerelated and demographic variables were weak and non-significant. However, a few significant correlations were found. As previously noted, being older and being a parent were negatively correlated with a sense of control over time. Not surprisingly, having a sense of control over time was positively related to a sense of competence, value and enjoyment regarding time. And finally, students who had more positive time attitudes and overall higher total time management scores reported higher grade point averages than those with lower scores on these variables.
For the final analyses, stepwise multiple regressions were performed using demographic and time management variables as the predictor variables, and time use, feelings about time use, and grade point average as the dependent or outcome variables. The purpose of using regression analyses was to explore the notion of time management as a habit that should predict role engagement (time use), volition (feelings about time use), and competent occupational role behavior (grade point average). Stepwise multiple regression analyses were performed to examine the extent to which combinations of demographic and time management variables predicted the dependent variables. Table 4 shows the results of these analyses. The level of significance for entry into the regression models was set at 0.10 for all predictor variables. Although all nine models achieved significance, the amount of variance predicted by the demographic and time management variables was quite small for two of the dependent variables; only 6% of the variance in time in recreation, and only 8%
Table 3 Intercorrelations among demographic, academic achievement, time use, feelings about time use, and time management variables
Gender Academic year Marital status Parental status Number of children Employment status Role demand Living situation GPA
Time use Time in work Time in school Time in ADL Time in recreation Time in rest
Age
Gender
-0.16 0.38** 0.41"** 0.65*** 0.63** 0.03 0.49*** 0.53*** .35***
-0.11 0.11 -0.08 -0.03 0.08 -0.10 -0.13 0.03
Academic year
Marital status
0.16 0.21"* 0.20* -0.14 . 0.33** 0.24* -0.04
0.44*** -0.01 0.34** 0.36*** 0.30**
Parental status
0.85*** 0.20* 0.64*** 0.36*** 0.32**
Number of Employment children status
Role demand
Living situation
GPA
Time in work
Time school
~
-0.24* 0.50*** 0.31** 0.32**
~ 0.63*** 0.21* -0.22*
~
0.45*** 0.11
~
~ ..
ti-
0.19
I:i'.
~.
0.13 -0.16 0.41*** -0.17 -0.29**
Feelings about time use -0.30** Competence 0.26** Value -0.24* Enjoyment Time management 0.20* Control of time Time attitude 0.04 Short range planning -0.13 Long range planning - 0.01 -0.05 Total time management
-0.13 -0.09 0.13 0.13 0.08 0.16 0.13 0.20* 0.18 -0.11 -0.07 -0.05 -0.10
'"
-0.05 -0.01 0.09 0.08 -0.21*
0.28** -0.14 0.13 -0.14 -0.31**
-0.09 -0.05 0.45*** -0.16 -0.18
-0.05 -0.02 0.42*** -0.18 -0.23*
0.35*** -0.17 -0.12 -0.05 -0.09
0.22* -0.22* 0.28** -0.16 -0.22*
0.36*** -0.15 0.23* -0.17 -0.41***
-0.01 -0.02 0.17 0.03 -0.18
-0.48*** -0.22* -0.21"* -0.28**
-0.21* -0.13 -0.14
-0.01 -0.005 0.11
-0.08 -0.26** -0.15
-0.21"* -0.02 -0.02
-0.34*** -0.11 -0.14
0.05 -0.11 -0.07
-0.17 -0.12 -0.09
0.03 -0.11 -0.15
0.01 0.15 -0.03
-0.02 -0.36*** -0.38***
-0.01 0.20* 0.10
-0.17 -0.12 -0.02 -0.12 -0.11
-0.14 0.04 -0.12 0.05 -0.03
-0.26** 0.11 -0.14 -0.09 -0.07
-0.24* 0.13 -0.16 -0.04 -0.05
-0.06 -0.14 0.14 0.03 0.03
-0.21"* -0.05 -0.02 -0.06 -0.05
-0.17 -0.01 0.09 -0.003 0.04
-0.04 -0.01 -0.D7 -0.05 -0.06
-0.10 0.04 0.17 -0.01 0.10
0.006 0.23* 0.09 0.16 0.21*
~.
~.
~.
9\
Q
~ ~
"'"
91 I·
.....
~.
......
1)..). ~,
.....
~
Table 3 (Continued) Time in ADL
Time in recreation
Time in rest
Competence
Value
Enjoyment
Control of time
Time attitude
Short range planning
Long range planning
Gender Academic year Marital status Parental status Number of children Employment Status Role demand Living situation GPA Time use Time in work Time in school TimeinADL Time in recreation Time in rest Feelings about time use Competence Value Enjoyment Time management Control of time Time attitude Short range planning Long range planning Total time management
~
~
~ ~ ~
,....
l:>
-o.os -0.14
.......
~
-0.28**
~
0-
-0.07 0.03 0.04
0.13 0.2'1* 0.30**
0.06 -0.0003 -0.09
Q
0.45*** 0.3'1**
:8
~
...... ......
0.65***
V.
I ......
-0.16 0.06 -0.06 0.05 0.02
0.11 -0.10 O.OOS
-0.04 -0.05
0.22* -0.11 -0.10
0.25** 0.15 0.04
O.OS
O.OS
-0.03
0.11
0.21* 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.14
0.23* 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.10
~
0.35*** 0.05 0.34*** • 0.30**
0.14 0.52*** 0.68***
0.42*** 0.75***
0.S4***
*p < 0.05; ** P < 0.01; *** P < 0.001; for all correlations except those involving GPA, n range from 102-106, for correlations involving GPA, n range from SS to 91; Gender: 0 = male 1 = female; Academic year: 1 = freshman, 2 = sophomore,3 = junior,4 = senior; Marital status: 0 = single, 1 = married/significant other; Parental status: 0 = non-parent; 1 = parent; Employment status 0 = not employed, 1 = employed; Living situation: 0 = on campus, 1 = commuter; Role demand: 1 = low (student only), 2 = moderate (student and employt;d or student and parent), 3 = high (student and employed and parent); GPA = grade point average; ADL = activities of daily living; Time use: high score = high percentage of total time spent in work, school, ADL, recreation, or rest; Feelings about time use scores range from 1 to 5, high score = high feelings of competence, value, or enjoyment; Time management: scores range from 1-5, high score = high use of time management.
A.D. Henry et al. / Work 6 (1996) J J5-126
of the variance in time in school, was explained by the variables that entered into these models. For the other seven dependent variables, the amount of variance explained by the predictor variables which entered into the models equalled or exceeded 20%. Clear differences can be seen among the variables that predict the different uses of time. For example, students who spent more time in work were more likely to be commuter students, to be employed, to be married, and to have generally lower role demand. A different set of variables was predictive of more time spent in activities of daily living. These individuals were more likely to be parents, to be female, and to use more long range planning strategies.
123
Age was a variable that consistently entered into the models for the three dependent variables that tap feelings about time use. For example, subjects who felt more competent in their use of time were likely to have no children, to have positive time attitudes, to be commuters and to be younger. While having a greater number of children predicted lower feelings of competence related to time use, younger parents were more likely to value time use and enjoy their use of time. Use of long range planning strategies and a sense of control over time also entered into the models for value and enjoyment, respectively. Finally, the students who were more likely to have higher grade point averages were those who
Table 4 Results of nine stepwise multiple regression analyses
-------------_._--Dependent variables - time use
-
------------
- - - - - - - . - - . _ - - - - - . __ .. _ - - - - - - - - - -
Time in work
Time in school
Time in activities of daily living
Time in recreation
( + ) Living situation ( + ) Employment status ( + ) Marital status
( - ) Role demand ( - ) Control of time ( + ) Long range planning
( + ) Parental status (+) Gender
( + ) Academic year
( + ) Control of time
Model r2 = 0.08 Model P = 0.015
Model r2 Model P
Model r2 ~ 0.06 Model P = 0.04
Model r2 = 0.20 Model P = 0.0001
(.- ) Living situation
Time in rest
( - ) Living situation
( - ) Role demand Model r2 ,= 0.29 Model P 0= 0.0001
= =
0.28 0.0001
Dependent variables - feelings about time use Competence (-) Number of children
( + ) Time attitudes ( + ) Living situation ( - ) Age Model r2 Model P
= =
0.20 0.0003
Value
---------
Enjoyment --_._------------(-) Age (-) Age ( + ) Parental status ( + ) Academic year ( - ) Marital status ( + ) Parental status ( + ) Long range planning ( + ) Control of time Model r2 = 0.21 Model P = 0.0002
Model r2 ~ 0.20 Model P = 0.0003
Dependent variable Grade point average (+) Age
( + ) Total time management
( + ) Marital status
Model r2 = 0.21 Model P = 0.0002 - -. ---_._-.----------For all predictor variables, level of significance for entry into model set at D.IO. Variables are listed in order of entry into the model. ( + ) high score on predictor variable predicts high score on dependent variable. ( .- ) low score on predictor variable predicts high score on dependent variable_
124
A,D, Henry et of. / Work 6 (1996) 115···126
were older, who had higher total time management scores, and who were married. 4. Discussion Older, 'non-traditional' students are increasingly being attracted to health care fields. This trend has been seen in occupational therapy, where the percentage of students over the age of 25 has increased steadily in recent years, and was most recently reported to be at just over 30% of all students (American Occupational Therapy Association, 1995). These individuals have the potential to contribute much to the profession by virtue of their motivation, maturity and life experience. Many of the subjects in this study fit the description of being 'non-traditional'. The group of students in this study, who were drawn from an urban, public college, (the only public institution to offer occupational therapy in Massachusetts), may be more 'non-traditional' than most groups of undergraduate students. The majority were commuting students and were employed, many were older (with 40% over age 25), and over 26% were parents. Clearly these subjects are juggling many life demands beyond their student role. The data presented here clearly suggest that older students, particularly those who are parents, differ from their younger peers both in terms of their time use patterns and in their feelings about time use. As well, the student-worker, particularly those who spent larger amounts of time at work, differ from their peers in feelings about time use. The picture that emerges from these data is one of an individual who is trying to juggle multiple roles and experiencing some decreased sense of efficacy and satisfaction, and, for some, decreased competent role performance. While the studentparent is feeling notably less competent, the student-worker is experiencing a lowered sense of value and enjoyment in his/her use of time, and is performing slightly less competently academically. Thus, there appear to be negative consequences to role overload among students. However, increased role demand does not automatically mean compromised academic perfor-
mance. In fact, in this study, student-parents reported significantly higher GPAs than their nonparent peers. Consequently, the lowered sense of competence in time use among these studentparents is notable and of some concern. It may be that this lowered sense of competence is related to areas other than academic performance; for example, competence as a parent. No objective measure of competent role performance, other than G~A, was used in this study. Regardless, the lowered sense of efficacy among these studentparents may put them at risk for 'burnout'. Few studies in occupational therapy have examined the needs of students who are juggling multiple roles. One study examined role conflict among occupational therapy student-parents, and their use of available support services (e.g. financial aid, child care, support groups). The studentparents in that study used support groups more commonly than any other service (Menks and Tupper, 1987). The time management literature suggests that a sense of control over time predicts an increased sense of satisfaction and a decreased sense of stress (Macan, 1994). Moreover, Macan's (1994) findings suggest that task-oriented time management strategies such as making lists are not as important to a sense of control over time as are a preference for organization and goal setting. Similar interpretation may be drawn from the findings presented here; control of time was correlated with long range planning, but not short range planning. Macan (1994) argues that a preference for organization and a preference for goal setting may give an individual an increased feeling of control, and this increased sense of control leads to positive outcomes. In this study, a sense of control over time was positively correlated with a sense of competence, value and enjoyment related to time use. In addition, the findings of this study are consistent with others that have found a relationship between use of time management and academic achievement (Britton and Tesser, 1991). Although the efficacy of specific time management training has been questioned by some researchers (Macan, 1994), support interventions which address issues
A.D. Henry et al. / Work 6 (1996) 115-126
related to control and competence may be of some benefit to individuals like those in this study who are experiencing role overload. Within occupational therapy, Rosenfeld (1993) has developed a wellness curriculum, based on the model of human occupation, that addresses some of these issues. The results of this study provide support for some of the notions of the model of human occupation concerning the relationships among the subsystems of the dynamic human system (Kielhofner, 1995). Clearly the roles these students occupied influenced their time use; parents reported spending much more time in ADL than non-parents, workers spent more time at work and less time at school than non-workers, students who lived on campus spent much more time in rest than commuters. In addition, habituated behavior (role involvement and time use) is related to aspects of the volition subsystem. In particular, the notion of role overload resulting in a decreased sense of control, competence, and satisfaction receives some support here (Kielhofner, Barris and Watts, 1988). In addition, the regression analyses indicate that the use of time management (habit) is related to an increased feeling of competence, value and enjoyment (volition). Moreover, the use of time management strategies was related to competent occupational role performance (GPA) among these subjects. Limitations of this study should be noted. The sample of students used in this study is clearly not representative of all undergraduate college students, nor even representative of undergraduate occupational therapy students, Thus, generalizability of these findings to other groups may be limited. The use of self-report for the data collected here raises some concerns about reliability of that data. For example, subjects reported their own GPAs; no attempt was made to verify GPA with official school records. In addition, the Occupational Questionnaire asked subjects to report activities for a typical weekday and to categorize them as work, school, activities of daily living, recreation or rest. Subjects may have differed in how they categorized activities. Since subjects completed the surveys on their own time, no one
125
from the research group was present to answer any questions pertaining to categorization of activities. Finally, the large number of correlations calculated increases the likelihood of chance findings, although this risk is controlled for in the regression analyses. 5. Conclusion The results of this study suggest that students who are experiencing increased role demand (role overload) are at risk for feeling less in control of time and less competent in their use of time, and for deriving less satisfaction (value and enjoyment) from their use of time. While academic achievement does not appear to be substantially compromised by role overload, it does appear that students who use time management more effectively may derive some benefit both in terms of how they feel about time use and in terms of academic achievement. Support groups or other intervention which help students with multiple role demands to develop a greater sense of control over time use should be routinely offered on college campuses. While the results of this study suggest that role overload may have negative consequences, and there is a belief in occupational therapy that a balance of roles is healthy and related to increased life satisfaction, 'role balance' has not been adequately described by the field. While the model of human occupation appears to provide a useful framework for furthering the field's understanding of the relationship of roles and habits to health, much additional research is needed to validate the model. References . Aspinwall, L.L. and Tay!or, S.S. (1992) Modeling cognitive adaptation: A longitudinal investigation of the impact of individual differences and coping on college adjustment and performance. 1. Pers. Soc. Psycho!. 63, 989-100:1. American Occupational Therapy Association (1995) Educational data survey final report. Survey of education programs 1993-1994 academic year. Bethesda, MD: AOT A. Barris, R., Kielhofner. O. and Watts, 1.H. (1988) Occupational therapy in psychosocial practice. Thorofare, Nl: Slack, Inc.
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Bond, M.M. and Feather, N.N. (1988) Some correlates of structure and purpose in time use. J. Pers. Soc. Psycho!. 55, 321-329. Britton, B.K., Tesser, A. (J 99]) Effects of time-management practices on college grades. J. Educ. Psycho!. 83, 405·-410. Kielhofner, G. (J 977) Temporal adaptation: A conceptual framework for occupational therapy. Am. 1. Occup. Ther. 31, 235--242. Kielhofner, G. (1979) The temporal dimension in the lives of retarded adults: A probkm of interaction and intervention. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 33,161-168. Kielhofner, G. (J 995) A model of human occupation: Theory and application. Second edition. Philadelphia: Williams and Wilkins. Lay, C.C. and Schouwenburg, H.H. (I993) Trait procrastination, time management and academic behavior. J. Soc. Behav. Pers. 8, 647-662. Macan, T.T. (J 994) Time management: test of a process mode!. J. App!. Psycho!. 79,381-391. Macan, T.T., Shahani, c., Dipboye, R.R. and Phillips, A.A. (1990) College students time management: correlation with academic performance and stress. J. Educ. Psycho!. 82, 760-768.
Menks, F.F. and Tupper L.L. (J 987) Role conflict in occupational therapy student parents. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 41, 21-27. Meyer, A. (J 922/1977) The philosophy of occupational therapy. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 31, 639-642. Neville-Jan, A. (J 994) The relationship of volition to adaptive occupational behavior among individuals with varying degrees of depression. Occup. Ther. Ment. Health 12(4), 1-18. Riopel Smith, N., Kidhofner, G., and Watts, J. (1986) The relationship between volition, activity patterns and life satisfaction in the elderly. Am. 1. Occup. Ther. 40, 278-283. Rosenfeld, M.M. (1993) Well ness and lifestyle renewa!' A manual for personal change. Rockville, MD: American Occupational Therapy Association. Suto, M. and Frank, G. (J 994) Future time perspective and daily occupations of persons with chronic schizophrenia in a board and care home. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 48, 7-18. Schuler, R.R. (J 979) Managing stress means managing time. Pers. 1. 58, 851-854. Weeder, T.T. (J 986) Comparison of temporal patterns and meaningful of the daily activities of schizophrenic and normal adults. Occup. Ther. Ment. Health 6(4), 27-48.
Assessment & Rehabilitation
ELSEVIER
Work 6 (I 996) 115-126
Time use, time management and academic achievement among occupational therapy students Alexis D. Henrya,1, Charlene Costab , Donna Ladd b , Claudine Robertson b , J ames Rollins b, Lea Roy b a Department of Psychiatry,
University of Massachusetts Medical Center, Worcester, MA, USA "Worcester State College, Worcester, MA, USA
Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine time use patterns and variables related to time use, including feelings about time use, time management, and academic achievement, among normal college students. Time use was examined from the perspective of the model of human occupation. One hundred and six male and female occupational therapy students enrolled at Worcester State College in Worcester, MA completed two sdf-report questionnaires and a demographic questionnaire. The subjects completed the Occupational Questionnaire (Riopd Smith, Kidhofner, and Watts, 1986) which measured time use (activities engaged in during a typical 24-h period), and feelings about time use (related to competence, value, enjoyment) for the activities they reported. In addition, they completed the Time Management Questionnaire (Britton and Tesser, 1991), which measured their time attitudes, preferences for short range planning, and preferences for long range planning. The results of the study suggest that older students and those experiencing role overload perceive themselves as iess competent, and value and enjoy their time use less than younger students and those with fewer role demands. In addition, the use of time management was related to academic achievement. Implications of the findings are discussed.
Keywords: Roles; Role overload; Habits; Model of human occupation; Perceived control; Perceived competence
1. Introduction
Time use patterns of undergraduate college students are influenced by many factors. Students
* Corresponding author. IAlexis D. Henry at the time of this study, was Assistant Professor of Occupational Therapy, Worcester State College, Worcester, MA.
must handle the multiple tasks associated with the academic role. In addition, today's students often occupy other roles (e.g. worker, spouse, parent) which present them with additional task requirements. Successfully managing the multiple tasks associated with the student role and other roles would seem to require efficient and effective use of time. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among time use pat-
1051-9815/96/$15.00 @ 1996 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. 1 15 PII:SI051-9815(96)00162-E
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A.D. Henry et (1/. / Work 6 (J 996) 115-126
terns, feeling about time use, time management behaviors, and academic achievement among occupational therapy students. 'Time management' is a construct that has received considerable attention in the popular literature, although empirical research examining the relationship of time management behaviors to other variables is limited. Time management has been defined as 'clusters of behavior that facilitate productivity and alleviate stress' (Lay and Schouwenburg, 1993, p. 648). The ability to manage time effectively is believed to result in the accomplishment of tasks and goals with less stress and greater efficiency, satisfaction, and health. Although different time management strategies exist, in essence the process of time management involves identifying needs and wants in order of importance and matching them with the available time resources (Macan, Shah ani, Dipboye and Phillips, 1990; Schuler, 1979). Investigators who have attempted to ope rationalize time management have argued that it is a multidimensional construct, involving task-oriented behaviors such as setting goals, making lists and schedules, and organizing work space, as well as beliefs that one can control how one's time is spent, and a preference for organization (Macan, et aI., 1990; Britton and Tesser, 1991). The relationship of time management to academic achievement among college students has been examined by behavioral researchers. While the use of task-oriented time management behaviors has been found to positively correlate with grade point average, even stronger correlations have been found between beliefs about time control and academic achievement (Aspinwall and Taylor, 1992; Britton and Tesser, 1991; Macan, et aI., 1990). Moreover, students who report a greater sense of control over time also report less stress, less role ambiguity and role overload, and greater work and life satisfaction (Macan, et aI., 1990). In a more recent study Macan (1994) proposes that it is perceived control of time that is the factor most predictive of positive outcomes such as decreased stress and satisfaction. She proposes that it is not the time management behaviors, per se, that result in these more positive outcomes, but it is the heightened sense of control over time which these behaviors afford. Macan (1994) found
that individuals who set goals and priorities and had a preference for organization perceived themselves as having greater control over their time than individuals who did not have these characteristics. She also found that perceived control over time was related to job satisfaction and reduced stress. Another study (Bond and Feather, 1988) found that students who reported more structure and purpose in their time also reported psychological well being, optimism about the future, more efficient study habits, fewer somatic symptoms and less depression than students who report less structure and purpose. Few studies have examined the relationship of other life role demands (e.g. employment and parenthood) to the use of time management behaviors and academic achievement among college students. Macan and colleagues (1990) proposed that employed students, in order to handle the multiple demands of work and school, may utilize more time management behaviors than students who do not work. However, they found no relationship between increased role demand (working and being a student) and either academic achievement or the use of time management behaviors. They did, however, find that students with increased role demand experienced more psychological and physical stress and less life and work satisfaction. Although the specific term 'time management' is rarely found in the occupational therapy literature, the temporal dimensions of human behavior have historically been part of the field's knowledge base and domain of concern (Kielhofner, 1977; Meyer, 1922/1977). This concern was articulated by Kielhofner in his 1977 paper, when he coined the term 'temporal adaptation'. Temporal adaptation refers, in part, to an individual's ability to organize time around role demands and to develop a range of relatively consistent, routinized behaviors (i.e. habits) that support role performance. Influencing the organization of time are an individual's goals, values and interests which provide direction and meaning for role and habit behavior (Kielhofner, 1977). More recently, Kielhofner (1995) has elaborated on the temporal dimensions of human behavior in the model of human occupation. The model of human occupation views' occupational role behav-
A.D. Henry et at. / Work 6 (1996) 115-126
ior, in part, as the product of three interrelated subsystems of a dynamic human system (Kielhofner, 1995). While the volition subsystem is that aspect of the individual responsible for choosing occupation, and the performance subsystem is responsible for producing occupation, the habituation subsystem is concerned with organizing occupation into patterns and routines. A person's roles and habits are those patterned and routinized occupational behaviors to which much of daily time use is devoted (Kielhofner, 1995). Kielhofner (1995) describes habits as latent tendencies to behave in a particular way. Habits are acquired through repetition, operate at a largely preconscious level, and optimally, function to support competent occupational role performance. An occupational role is an acquired and learned position within a social group that organizes behavior via both internal and external expectations for performance. Common occupational roles include worker, student, homemaker, caregiver, friend, family member and hobbyist (Kielhofner, 1995). Applying these definitions, time management strategies could be conceived of as one type of habit that supports occupational role performance. According to the model, each subsystem exerts influence on and is influenced by the other subsystems. For example, a person's volition subsystem, that is her sense of control and competence, her values related to occupational roles, and the specific occupational preferences she has, can influence her habituated behavior and conversely, role and habit behavior can influence an individual's sense of control. Thus, an individual who has too many role demands competing for limited time resources may experience role overload, and may feel a decreased sense of control and satisfaction (Barris, Kielhofner and Watts, 1988). As previously noted, Macan and colleagues (1990) found that feelings of control and satisfaction were negatively related to increased role demands. The consistent and effective use of time management strategies (i.e. habits) may help an individual feel a greater sense of control and satisfaction. Further, as the model of human occupation suggests, effective habits should contribute to more competent role performance. One measure of competent role performance among
117
college students is grade point average, which has been found to correlate with the use of time management strategies (Britton and Tesser, 1991). Despite the historical concern with time and the relationship of time use to overall health and well-being, within occupational therapy the attempts to empirically examine temporal behavior have been limited. A few occupational therapy researchers have attempted to examine the temporal behavior of individuals with various disabilities or disorders (e.g. Kielhofner, 1979; Weeder, 1986; Neville-Jan, 1994; Suto and Frank, 1994). However, more preliminary descriptive studies of time use among normal individuals are lacking in the field. The purpose of the present study is to examine time use patterns, and variables related to time use, among a group of normal individuals (occupational therapy students). This study examines some of the' assumptions made by the model of human occupation related to habituated behavior; specifically the notion that habits (in this case, time management strategies) support .occupational role behavior. Occupational role behavior is operationalized by the subjects' time use (reflecting role engagement), by feelings about time use (i.e. competence, value and enjoyment [volition subsystem)), and a more concrete measure of occupational role competence for these subjects, namely academic achievement (grade point average). 2. Method 2.1. Subjects
One hundred and six undergraduate students enrolled in the undergraduate occupational therapy program at Worcester State College in Massachusetts volunteered to participate in the study. The ages of the subjects ranged from 17 to 47, 86.3% were females and 13.7% were males. All subjects were approached at the beginning of a class and given a six-page booklet. The booklet contained a consent form, a demographic form, instructions for completing two questionnaires, the Occupational Questionnaire (OQ), and the Time Management Questionnaire (TMQ). Com-
118
A.D. Henry et a/. / Work 6 (J996) 115-126
pleting the questionnaires took an average of 30 mins.
90% agreement on how person's classified activities. These findings suggest that the occupational questionnaire is a reliable and valid measure.
2.2. Instruments
2. 2.1. Demographic data Data regarding age, gender, academic year, marital status, parental status (nonparent/parent), number of children, employment status (not employed/employed), living situation (on-campus/commuter), and grade point average were collected via self-report. An additional variable called 'role demand' was created from these data. Subjects were considered to have 'low role demand' if they were students only, 'moderate role demand' if they were students and workers or students and parents, and 'high role demand' if they were students, workers and parents. 2.2.2. The Occupational Questionnaire (OQ) The OQ was used to measure time use patterns during a typical day and feelings about time use, and thus taps aspects of the habituation (time use) and volition (feelings about time use) subsystems (Smith, Kielhofner, and Watts, 1986). To complete the OQ, subjects were asked to indicate their main activity during each half hour of a typical weekday (time use), and to classify each activity as either work, school, activity of daily living (ADL), recreation or rest. Subjects were then asked to rate each activity using a 5-point Likert-type scale, indicating how well they do the activity (competence), how important the activity is (value), and how enjoyable the activity is (enjoyment). Smith and colleague (1986) report the results of a pilot study to examine reliability and validity of the OQ. Test-retest reliability was examined with 20 elderly adults. Sixty-eight percent of a typical days activities reported during the first administration were again reported during the same time period of the second administration. There was also 87% agreement for type of activity, 77% for activity competency, 81% for activity value, and 77% for activity enjoyment. A study of concurrent validity (Riopel Smith, et ai., 1986), using the Household Work Study Diary yielded 82% agreement in configuration of activities and 97% and
2.2.3. The Time Management Questionnaire (TMQ) A shortened version (17 items) of the TMQ, described by Britton and Tesser (1991), was used in this study to measure time management. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale, with a higher score indicating better time management. The TMQ is. divided into three subscales. The 'short range planning' subscale reflects subject's use of task-oriented time management behaviors (e.g. making a list for that day). The 'time attitudes' subscale taps the subjects sense of control and constructive use of time. The 'long range planning' subscale is an indicator of the subject's preference for organization and tendency to set relatively longer range goals (e.g. setting goals for the semester). An overall time management score can be obtained by calculating a mean of the 17 items. Britton and Tesser (1991) report results of a principal components analysis verifying the structure of these three subscales (factors). Item loadings on the factors ranged from 0.42 to 0.79. Using data from the present study, internal consistency estimates were 0.75 for the total score, and 0.74, 0.56, and 0.46 for the short range planning, time attitude and long range planning subscales, respectively. In addition to the three subscales and the total score, a single item - control of time -- was also used in the data analysis. 3. Results
Demographic characteristics of the sample are reported in Table 1. The mean age of subjects was 25.6 years; 40% of subjects were over 25. A majority of the subjects were female (83.6%), were commuter students (71.8%), and most were employed at least part-time (76%). Over 1/4 of the subjects were parents. 'Role demand' was moderate to high for the majority of subjects. Only 15 individuals occupied the student role alone. This is notable because the overwhelming majority of these subjects were full-time students. Mean grade point average was quite high for these subjects (3.51 on a scale of 1-4).
A.D. Henry et al. / Work 6 (1996) 115-126
119
Intercorrelations among demographic characteristics, grade point average (GPA), time use and feelings about time use variables, and time management variables are presented in Table 3. PearAge M = 25.6, S.D. = 7.7, range "~ 17-47 (missing n = 3) son product-moment correlation coefficients were used to examine intercorrelations among all variGender 14 (13.7%) male 88 (86.3%) female ables. (missing n = 4) As would be expected, there were many significant correlations among the demographic variAcademic year 26 (24.5%) freshman 41 (38.7%) sophomore ables. Older subjects were more likely to be mar21 (19.8%) junior ried, to be parents, to be commuter students, and 18 (17.0%) senior to have higher role demand than younger subMarital status 57 (54.3%) single jects. Several of the demographic variables corre48 (45.7%) married/significant other lated significantly with the time-related variables (missing n = I) (i.e. time use, feelings about time use, and time Parental status 78 (73.6%) non-parent management). Among the most notable were the 28 (26.4%) parent correlations between age and the time-related Mean number of children M = 2.14, range = 1-5 (among parents) variables, and the correlations between parental status and number of children and the time-reEmployment status 25 (24%) not employed lated variable. Older subjects reported spending 79 (i6%) employed (missing n = 2) significantly more time in activities of daily living (ADL) and significantly less time in rest than 15 (14.4%) low Role demand 73 (70.2%) moderate younger subjects. In addition, older subjects re16 (J 5.4%) high ported feeling significantly less competent in time (missing n = 2) use, valued and enjoyed time use less, and felt 29 (28.2%) on-campus Living situation themselves to have less control over their time 74 (71.8%) commuter than their younger counterparts. A similar pat(missing n = 3) tern was found regarding parental status and/or GPA M = 3.51, S.D. = 0.29, range = 2.5-4.0 number of children. Subjects who were parents (Missing, n = 15) spent more time in ADL, less time in rest, felt Role demand: low student only, moderate = student + less competent in time use, and felt less control employed or student + parent, high = student + employed + over their time than subjects who were not parparent; GPA = grade point average. ents. Feelings of competence were most strongly negatively related to number of children; thus, the more children these subjects had, the less Table 2 shows means and standard deviations competent in time use they were likely to feel. for the three sets of time-related variables Despite feeling less competent, older subjects and time use, feelings about time use, and time manthose who were parents were significantly more agement - for the subjects by academic year. likely to report higher grade point averages than Across all academic years, subjects reported younger, non-parent subjects. spending the largest percentage of their non-rest Engagement in the worker role was related to time in school. Except for the amount of time academic achievement, as well as to how subjects spent in rest, there ..yere no significant differences used their time and felt about time. Subjects who among subjects in different academic years for were employed reported lower grade point averany of these variables. ANOVA and post-hoc analyses revealed a significant difference (P = ages than non-employed subjects. Subjects who 0.05) between freshmen and juniors for the spent greater amounts of time at work valued and amount of time spent in rest. enjoyed hme less than those who spent less time Table I Demographic characteristil'S of sample of occupational therapy students (n = 106)
A.D. Henry et al. / Work 6 (1996) 115-126
120
Table 2 Mean scores for time use, feelings about time use, and time management for subjects by academic year Freshman
en = 26)
---_._-
Sophomore en ~ 41)
Junior = 21)
Senior
en
en = 18)
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
10% 28% 18% 12% 34%
0.15 0.10 0.14 0.08 0.05
15% 28% 15% 10% 32%
0.14 0.12 0.07 0.09 0.09
14% 30% 18% 11% 27%
0.15 0.12 0.08 0.10 0.12
08% 27% 20% 15% 30%
0.09 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.08
4.2 4.5 4.0
0.48 0.39 0.47
4.1 4.2 3.9
0.41 0.44 0.39
4.1 4.3 4.0
0.40 0.35 0.40
4.2 4.4 4.2
0.42 0.29 0.26
3.6 3.5 3.4 3.2 3.3
0.85 0.53 0.74 0.65 0.49
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.2 3.4
0.89 0.49 0.63 0.57 0.39
3.1 3.4 3.3 3.0 3.2
1.2 0.42 0.74 0.62 0.50
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.3
0.87 0.51 0.48 0.42 0.41
Time use Work School ADL Recreation Rest*
Feelings about time use Competence Value Enjoyment
Time management Control of time Time attitude Short range planning Long range planning Total
:u
Time use: values reflect percentage of total time spent in work, school, ADL, recreation, and rest; Feelings about time use: scores range from 1-5, low score = low feelings of competence, value, or enjoyment, high score = high feelings of competence, value. or enjoyment; Time management: scores range from 1 to 5, low score = low use of time management, high sc(m: = high use of time management; * significant difference was found at the 0.05 level between freshman and juniors for rest.
at work. Conversely, time spent in recreation was positively correlated with value and enjoyment. Commuter students differed from students who lived on campus in time use. Commuter students (who were more likely to be older, to be employed, to be parents, and thus, to have higher role demand) spent more time in work, more time in ADL, and less time in rest than students who lived on campus. For the most part, the correlations between the time management variables and the other timerelated and demographic variables were weak and non-significant. However, a few significant correlations were found. As previously noted, being older and being a parent were negatively correlated with a sense of control over time. Not surprisingly, having a sense of control over time was positively related to a sense of competence, value and enjoyment regarding time. And finally, students who had more positive time attitudes and overall higher total time management scores reported higher grade point averages than those with lower scores on these variables.
For the final analyses, stepwise multiple regressions were performed using demographic and time management variables as the predictor variables, and time use, feelings about time use, and grade point average as the dependent or outcome variables. The purpose of using regression analyses was to explore the notion of time management as a habit that should predict role engagement (time use), volition (feelings about time use), and competent occupational role behavior (grade point average). Stepwise multiple regression analyses were performed to examine the extent to which combinations of demographic and time management variables predicted the dependent variables. Table 4 shows the results of these analyses. The level of significance for entry into the regression models was set at 0.10 for all predictor variables. Although all nine models achieved significance, the amount of variance predicted by the demographic and time management variables was quite small for two of the dependent variables; only 6% of the variance in time in recreation, and only 8%
Table 3 Intercorrelations among demographic, academic achievement, time use, feelings about time use, and time management variables
Gender Academic year Marital status Parental status Number of children Employment status Role demand Living situation GPA
Time use Time in work Time in school Time in ADL Time in recreation Time in rest
Age
Gender
-0.16 0.38** 0.41"** 0.65*** 0.63** 0.03 0.49*** 0.53*** .35***
-0.11 0.11 -0.08 -0.03 0.08 -0.10 -0.13 0.03
Academic year
Marital status
0.16 0.21"* 0.20* -0.14 . 0.33** 0.24* -0.04
0.44*** -0.01 0.34** 0.36*** 0.30**
Parental status
0.85*** 0.20* 0.64*** 0.36*** 0.32**
Number of Employment children status
Role demand
Living situation
GPA
Time in work
Time school
~
-0.24* 0.50*** 0.31** 0.32**
~ 0.63*** 0.21* -0.22*
~
0.45*** 0.11
~
~ ..
ti-
0.19
I:i'.
~.
0.13 -0.16 0.41*** -0.17 -0.29**
Feelings about time use -0.30** Competence 0.26** Value -0.24* Enjoyment Time management 0.20* Control of time Time attitude 0.04 Short range planning -0.13 Long range planning - 0.01 -0.05 Total time management
-0.13 -0.09 0.13 0.13 0.08 0.16 0.13 0.20* 0.18 -0.11 -0.07 -0.05 -0.10
'"
-0.05 -0.01 0.09 0.08 -0.21*
0.28** -0.14 0.13 -0.14 -0.31**
-0.09 -0.05 0.45*** -0.16 -0.18
-0.05 -0.02 0.42*** -0.18 -0.23*
0.35*** -0.17 -0.12 -0.05 -0.09
0.22* -0.22* 0.28** -0.16 -0.22*
0.36*** -0.15 0.23* -0.17 -0.41***
-0.01 -0.02 0.17 0.03 -0.18
-0.48*** -0.22* -0.21"* -0.28**
-0.21* -0.13 -0.14
-0.01 -0.005 0.11
-0.08 -0.26** -0.15
-0.21"* -0.02 -0.02
-0.34*** -0.11 -0.14
0.05 -0.11 -0.07
-0.17 -0.12 -0.09
0.03 -0.11 -0.15
0.01 0.15 -0.03
-0.02 -0.36*** -0.38***
-0.01 0.20* 0.10
-0.17 -0.12 -0.02 -0.12 -0.11
-0.14 0.04 -0.12 0.05 -0.03
-0.26** 0.11 -0.14 -0.09 -0.07
-0.24* 0.13 -0.16 -0.04 -0.05
-0.06 -0.14 0.14 0.03 0.03
-0.21"* -0.05 -0.02 -0.06 -0.05
-0.17 -0.01 0.09 -0.003 0.04
-0.04 -0.01 -0.D7 -0.05 -0.06
-0.10 0.04 0.17 -0.01 0.10
0.006 0.23* 0.09 0.16 0.21*
~.
~.
~.
9\
Q
~ ~
"'"
91 I·
.....
~.
......
1)..). ~,
.....
~
Table 3 (Continued) Time in ADL
Time in recreation
Time in rest
Competence
Value
Enjoyment
Control of time
Time attitude
Short range planning
Long range planning
Gender Academic year Marital status Parental status Number of children Employment Status Role demand Living situation GPA Time use Time in work Time in school TimeinADL Time in recreation Time in rest Feelings about time use Competence Value Enjoyment Time management Control of time Time attitude Short range planning Long range planning Total time management
~
~
~ ~ ~
,....
l:>
-o.os -0.14
.......
~
-0.28**
~
0-
-0.07 0.03 0.04
0.13 0.2'1* 0.30**
0.06 -0.0003 -0.09
Q
0.45*** 0.3'1**
:8
~
...... ......
0.65***
V.
I ......
-0.16 0.06 -0.06 0.05 0.02
0.11 -0.10 O.OOS
-0.04 -0.05
0.22* -0.11 -0.10
0.25** 0.15 0.04
O.OS
O.OS
-0.03
0.11
0.21* 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.14
0.23* 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.10
~
0.35*** 0.05 0.34*** • 0.30**
0.14 0.52*** 0.68***
0.42*** 0.75***
0.S4***
*p < 0.05; ** P < 0.01; *** P < 0.001; for all correlations except those involving GPA, n range from 102-106, for correlations involving GPA, n range from SS to 91; Gender: 0 = male 1 = female; Academic year: 1 = freshman, 2 = sophomore,3 = junior,4 = senior; Marital status: 0 = single, 1 = married/significant other; Parental status: 0 = non-parent; 1 = parent; Employment status 0 = not employed, 1 = employed; Living situation: 0 = on campus, 1 = commuter; Role demand: 1 = low (student only), 2 = moderate (student and employt;d or student and parent), 3 = high (student and employed and parent); GPA = grade point average; ADL = activities of daily living; Time use: high score = high percentage of total time spent in work, school, ADL, recreation, or rest; Feelings about time use scores range from 1 to 5, high score = high feelings of competence, value, or enjoyment; Time management: scores range from 1-5, high score = high use of time management.
A.D. Henry et al. / Work 6 (1996) J J5-126
of the variance in time in school, was explained by the variables that entered into these models. For the other seven dependent variables, the amount of variance explained by the predictor variables which entered into the models equalled or exceeded 20%. Clear differences can be seen among the variables that predict the different uses of time. For example, students who spent more time in work were more likely to be commuter students, to be employed, to be married, and to have generally lower role demand. A different set of variables was predictive of more time spent in activities of daily living. These individuals were more likely to be parents, to be female, and to use more long range planning strategies.
123
Age was a variable that consistently entered into the models for the three dependent variables that tap feelings about time use. For example, subjects who felt more competent in their use of time were likely to have no children, to have positive time attitudes, to be commuters and to be younger. While having a greater number of children predicted lower feelings of competence related to time use, younger parents were more likely to value time use and enjoy their use of time. Use of long range planning strategies and a sense of control over time also entered into the models for value and enjoyment, respectively. Finally, the students who were more likely to have higher grade point averages were those who
Table 4 Results of nine stepwise multiple regression analyses
-------------_._--Dependent variables - time use
-
------------
- - - - - - - . - - . _ - - - - - . __ .. _ - - - - - - - - - -
Time in work
Time in school
Time in activities of daily living
Time in recreation
( + ) Living situation ( + ) Employment status ( + ) Marital status
( - ) Role demand ( - ) Control of time ( + ) Long range planning
( + ) Parental status (+) Gender
( + ) Academic year
( + ) Control of time
Model r2 = 0.08 Model P = 0.015
Model r2 Model P
Model r2 ~ 0.06 Model P = 0.04
Model r2 = 0.20 Model P = 0.0001
(.- ) Living situation
Time in rest
( - ) Living situation
( - ) Role demand Model r2 ,= 0.29 Model P 0= 0.0001
= =
0.28 0.0001
Dependent variables - feelings about time use Competence (-) Number of children
( + ) Time attitudes ( + ) Living situation ( - ) Age Model r2 Model P
= =
0.20 0.0003
Value
---------
Enjoyment --_._------------(-) Age (-) Age ( + ) Parental status ( + ) Academic year ( - ) Marital status ( + ) Parental status ( + ) Long range planning ( + ) Control of time Model r2 = 0.21 Model P = 0.0002
Model r2 ~ 0.20 Model P = 0.0003
Dependent variable Grade point average (+) Age
( + ) Total time management
( + ) Marital status
Model r2 = 0.21 Model P = 0.0002 - -. ---_._-.----------For all predictor variables, level of significance for entry into model set at D.IO. Variables are listed in order of entry into the model. ( + ) high score on predictor variable predicts high score on dependent variable. ( .- ) low score on predictor variable predicts high score on dependent variable_
124
A,D, Henry et of. / Work 6 (1996) 115···126
were older, who had higher total time management scores, and who were married. 4. Discussion Older, 'non-traditional' students are increasingly being attracted to health care fields. This trend has been seen in occupational therapy, where the percentage of students over the age of 25 has increased steadily in recent years, and was most recently reported to be at just over 30% of all students (American Occupational Therapy Association, 1995). These individuals have the potential to contribute much to the profession by virtue of their motivation, maturity and life experience. Many of the subjects in this study fit the description of being 'non-traditional'. The group of students in this study, who were drawn from an urban, public college, (the only public institution to offer occupational therapy in Massachusetts), may be more 'non-traditional' than most groups of undergraduate students. The majority were commuting students and were employed, many were older (with 40% over age 25), and over 26% were parents. Clearly these subjects are juggling many life demands beyond their student role. The data presented here clearly suggest that older students, particularly those who are parents, differ from their younger peers both in terms of their time use patterns and in their feelings about time use. As well, the student-worker, particularly those who spent larger amounts of time at work, differ from their peers in feelings about time use. The picture that emerges from these data is one of an individual who is trying to juggle multiple roles and experiencing some decreased sense of efficacy and satisfaction, and, for some, decreased competent role performance. While the studentparent is feeling notably less competent, the student-worker is experiencing a lowered sense of value and enjoyment in his/her use of time, and is performing slightly less competently academically. Thus, there appear to be negative consequences to role overload among students. However, increased role demand does not automatically mean compromised academic perfor-
mance. In fact, in this study, student-parents reported significantly higher GPAs than their nonparent peers. Consequently, the lowered sense of competence in time use among these studentparents is notable and of some concern. It may be that this lowered sense of competence is related to areas other than academic performance; for example, competence as a parent. No objective measure of competent role performance, other than G~A, was used in this study. Regardless, the lowered sense of efficacy among these studentparents may put them at risk for 'burnout'. Few studies in occupational therapy have examined the needs of students who are juggling multiple roles. One study examined role conflict among occupational therapy student-parents, and their use of available support services (e.g. financial aid, child care, support groups). The studentparents in that study used support groups more commonly than any other service (Menks and Tupper, 1987). The time management literature suggests that a sense of control over time predicts an increased sense of satisfaction and a decreased sense of stress (Macan, 1994). Moreover, Macan's (1994) findings suggest that task-oriented time management strategies such as making lists are not as important to a sense of control over time as are a preference for organization and goal setting. Similar interpretation may be drawn from the findings presented here; control of time was correlated with long range planning, but not short range planning. Macan (1994) argues that a preference for organization and a preference for goal setting may give an individual an increased feeling of control, and this increased sense of control leads to positive outcomes. In this study, a sense of control over time was positively correlated with a sense of competence, value and enjoyment related to time use. In addition, the findings of this study are consistent with others that have found a relationship between use of time management and academic achievement (Britton and Tesser, 1991). Although the efficacy of specific time management training has been questioned by some researchers (Macan, 1994), support interventions which address issues
A.D. Henry et al. / Work 6 (1996) 115-126
related to control and competence may be of some benefit to individuals like those in this study who are experiencing role overload. Within occupational therapy, Rosenfeld (1993) has developed a wellness curriculum, based on the model of human occupation, that addresses some of these issues. The results of this study provide support for some of the notions of the model of human occupation concerning the relationships among the subsystems of the dynamic human system (Kielhofner, 1995). Clearly the roles these students occupied influenced their time use; parents reported spending much more time in ADL than non-parents, workers spent more time at work and less time at school than non-workers, students who lived on campus spent much more time in rest than commuters. In addition, habituated behavior (role involvement and time use) is related to aspects of the volition subsystem. In particular, the notion of role overload resulting in a decreased sense of control, competence, and satisfaction receives some support here (Kielhofner, Barris and Watts, 1988). In addition, the regression analyses indicate that the use of time management (habit) is related to an increased feeling of competence, value and enjoyment (volition). Moreover, the use of time management strategies was related to competent occupational role performance (GPA) among these subjects. Limitations of this study should be noted. The sample of students used in this study is clearly not representative of all undergraduate college students, nor even representative of undergraduate occupational therapy students, Thus, generalizability of these findings to other groups may be limited. The use of self-report for the data collected here raises some concerns about reliability of that data. For example, subjects reported their own GPAs; no attempt was made to verify GPA with official school records. In addition, the Occupational Questionnaire asked subjects to report activities for a typical weekday and to categorize them as work, school, activities of daily living, recreation or rest. Subjects may have differed in how they categorized activities. Since subjects completed the surveys on their own time, no one
125
from the research group was present to answer any questions pertaining to categorization of activities. Finally, the large number of correlations calculated increases the likelihood of chance findings, although this risk is controlled for in the regression analyses. 5. Conclusion The results of this study suggest that students who are experiencing increased role demand (role overload) are at risk for feeling less in control of time and less competent in their use of time, and for deriving less satisfaction (value and enjoyment) from their use of time. While academic achievement does not appear to be substantially compromised by role overload, it does appear that students who use time management more effectively may derive some benefit both in terms of how they feel about time use and in terms of academic achievement. Support groups or other intervention which help students with multiple role demands to develop a greater sense of control over time use should be routinely offered on college campuses. While the results of this study suggest that role overload may have negative consequences, and there is a belief in occupational therapy that a balance of roles is healthy and related to increased life satisfaction, 'role balance' has not been adequately described by the field. While the model of human occupation appears to provide a useful framework for furthering the field's understanding of the relationship of roles and habits to health, much additional research is needed to validate the model. References . Aspinwall, L.L. and Tay!or, S.S. (1992) Modeling cognitive adaptation: A longitudinal investigation of the impact of individual differences and coping on college adjustment and performance. 1. Pers. Soc. Psycho!. 63, 989-100:1. American Occupational Therapy Association (1995) Educational data survey final report. Survey of education programs 1993-1994 academic year. Bethesda, MD: AOT A. Barris, R., Kielhofner. O. and Watts, 1.H. (1988) Occupational therapy in psychosocial practice. Thorofare, Nl: Slack, Inc.
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A.D. Henry et al. / Work 6 (1996) 115--126
Bond, M.M. and Feather, N.N. (1988) Some correlates of structure and purpose in time use. J. Pers. Soc. Psycho!. 55, 321-329. Britton, B.K., Tesser, A. (J 99]) Effects of time-management practices on college grades. J. Educ. Psycho!. 83, 405·-410. Kielhofner, G. (J 977) Temporal adaptation: A conceptual framework for occupational therapy. Am. 1. Occup. Ther. 31, 235--242. Kielhofner, G. (1979) The temporal dimension in the lives of retarded adults: A probkm of interaction and intervention. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 33,161-168. Kielhofner, G. (J 995) A model of human occupation: Theory and application. Second edition. Philadelphia: Williams and Wilkins. Lay, C.C. and Schouwenburg, H.H. (I993) Trait procrastination, time management and academic behavior. J. Soc. Behav. Pers. 8, 647-662. Macan, T.T. (J 994) Time management: test of a process mode!. J. App!. Psycho!. 79,381-391. Macan, T.T., Shahani, c., Dipboye, R.R. and Phillips, A.A. (1990) College students time management: correlation with academic performance and stress. J. Educ. Psycho!. 82, 760-768.
Menks, F.F. and Tupper L.L. (J 987) Role conflict in occupational therapy student parents. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 41, 21-27. Meyer, A. (J 922/1977) The philosophy of occupational therapy. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 31, 639-642. Neville-Jan, A. (J 994) The relationship of volition to adaptive occupational behavior among individuals with varying degrees of depression. Occup. Ther. Ment. Health 12(4), 1-18. Riopel Smith, N., Kidhofner, G., and Watts, J. (1986) The relationship between volition, activity patterns and life satisfaction in the elderly. Am. 1. Occup. Ther. 40, 278-283. Rosenfeld, M.M. (1993) Well ness and lifestyle renewa!' A manual for personal change. Rockville, MD: American Occupational Therapy Association. Suto, M. and Frank, G. (J 994) Future time perspective and daily occupations of persons with chronic schizophrenia in a board and care home. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 48, 7-18. Schuler, R.R. (J 979) Managing stress means managing time. Pers. 1. 58, 851-854. Weeder, T.T. (J 986) Comparison of temporal patterns and meaningful of the daily activities of schizophrenic and normal adults. Occup. Ther. Ment. Health 6(4), 27-48.
