Two Years of Oil Disaster in the Arabian Gulf
Review Articles
Status Report
Two Years of Oil Disaster in the Arabian Gulf Thomas H6pner, Karl-Heinz van Bernem 1, Harald Felzmann, Holger Struck Institute of Chemistry and Biologyof the Marine Environment (ICBM), Carl-von-Ossietzky-Universit~t,D-26111 Oldenburg, and GKSS-Research Center, D-21502 Geesthacht1, Germany
Abstract In January-February 1991, about I million ms of crude oil were released into the Arabian Gulf as a means of ecologicalwarfare. A ;tretch of 644 km along the Saudi Arabian coast was heavilypolluted over a width between a few meters and more than one kilometer. In four studies performed between March 1991 and April 1993 the state of representative areas of the affected coast was examined with the result that only minor changes were found in those oiled zones which are seldom inundated by the tides. Technical measures up to I993 did not exceed the test level. A biological regeneration process is in progress which was not recognizedas such in analyses of previous coastal oil pollution. Cyanobacterial mats, containing hydrocarbon-degradingbacteria, grow on oiled sediments which are regularlyreached by tidal water. Shrinkingand fracturingof the stable tar crusts starts a process of loosening and degrading of aged hydrocarbons.
1
Amount of Oil
The "Maximum Credible Accident" on the German North Sea coast is the one in which 50,000 m 3 of oil may be spilt. The protective measures are geared to this extreme case. By definition a maximum credible accident can be exceeded, but not combatted. Thus, the term "Super-Maximum Credible Accident" is in use. Lack as well as withholding of information did not only accompany the Gulf War but also the field of ecological warfare and its aftermath. Thus, exact time, places of spill, as well as the originators of the catastrophe are not entirely known. However, it is most likely correct to believe that the oil was pumped and released into the Gulf deliberately or at least with the conscious acceptance of an ecological catastrophe. When the German Minister of Environmental Affairs, Klaus TOPFER, and his team of experts visited the Saudi-Arabian Meteorology and Environmental Agency (MEPA) in March 1991, 0.5 million m 3 were indicated to be a determined and consolidated amount. At the beginning of July 1991 the MEPA was able to complete the first phase of the combat measures: the oil on the water surface had either been removed by land-based activities or had been degraded biologically. In any case, there was no further evidence of floating oil. In a provisional balance compiled at the end of June 1991, the MEPA indicated the amount taken up to be 300,000 m s [1]; from these
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154,000 m 3 were removed between March 4 and April 23 at Khaleej Mardumah, the southern end of the Dawhat (Bay) ad Dafi (-~ Station 5, see Fig. 2). 93,000 m 3 of this amount were dumped into a temporary disposal site (-* Fig. 1) [2] from where it has been taken to refineries. Besides these collected 300,000 m 3, huge amounts of oil cover a eulittoral strip of 644 km in length, which most likely exceeds 200,000 m 3. The UNEP report of May 1992 [3] assesses 0.94 to 1.25 million m 3, the Oil Spill Intelligence Report [4] 1.0 million m 3, i.e. about 20 times more than in the case of the German Maximum Credible Accident (the amount of oil spilt into the Kuwaiti desert is assessed to have been 10 million m 3 or more!). Altogether, these figures render the oil catastrophe in the Gulf the biggest marine accident by far in the history of crude oil, the Super-Maximum Credible Accident. Dawhat ad Daft (-~ Fig. 2) is formed by the islands of A1 Batinah and Abu Ali, which were linked to the mainland by dams at the beginning of the eighties. After the oil from Kuwait had affected the whole stretch of the coast, it gathered in the bay and did not move past Abu Ali; the coast to the south remained exempted. At Gurmah the oil accumulated to a thick layer, which sometimes was more than 10 cm, so that it could be soaked up without costly and slow skimmer facilities. The AMACO CADIZ catastrophe served as an example for an elaboration of a generally accepted index of the sensitivity of coastal areas to oil accidents [5]. The index ranges from 1 (insensitive) to 10 (extremely sensitive). Grade 10 would apply to the salt marshes which directly adjoin the high tide level of the tidal coasts. Grade 9 applies to tidal coasts on which sand and mud areas fall dry at ebb. The Kuwaiti and Saudi-Arabian Gulf coasts belong to this category. (In this and several other respects they have striking similarities to the German North Sea coast). Thus, in evaluating the oil catastrophe in the Gulf it has to be considered that an unprecedented amount of oil affects a coast of the most sensitive kind. After a short orientation visit in March 1991 (as a delegation member of the Federal Minister of Environmental Affairs) and field studies in June/July 1991, an interim report was issued [6]. Studies in January/February 1992 (as a member of the EC-project [7]) resulted in a status report after one year [8]. A field study project in April 1993 (as a visiting scientist to the University of Dhahran) is the basis for this new report two years after the catastrophe.
ESPR-Environ. Sci. & Pollut. Res. 1 (1) 3 8 - 4 6 (1994) 9 ecomed publishers, D-86899 Landsberg, Germany
Review Articles
2
Behavior and Dispersal of the Oil
Within a short time period about 40 % of the Kuwaiti oil evaporated. It is not confirmed whether this share is included in the figures given above [3, 4]. Amounts yet unknown have been biodegraded in the water phase. The oil's behavior, the fact that the relatively light Kuwaiti oil is basically degradable, and the existing nutrient and temperature conditions gave rise to the assumption that within a few years the Gulf would be able to cope with the pollution by degradation and aging of the oil [9]. For decades the Gulf has been chronically polluted by oil and seems to have been able to cope with the first use of oil as a means of ecological warfare (bombardment of the Iranian Nowruz oil drilling platforms by Iraqis in 1983/84) without collapsing ecologically [10]. As long as oil is liquid and drifts on the open sea the effects are mostly not as drastic as otherwise. In contrast to other cases, the floating oil was not transformed into a water-in-oil emulsion by wave energy. Even after a drift distance of 300 km it was still liquid and pumpable, which indicates that there was only little wind at the time in question. Liquid oil had been pushed onto the beaches in large slicks by onshore winds at high tide and had been deposited on the sediments at ebb. This explains the occurrence of large areas of polluted eulittoral (i.e. area between low and high tide level on tidal coasts). By insolation and further evaporation a solid oil-sand mixture was formed, which did not surface when flooded. According to MEPA's observations, on a coastal stretch of 765 km (from the border of Kuwait south of the Mina A1 Ahmadi, where most of the oil had been pumped into the Gulf, and the Abu Ali island) as much as 644 km were polluted completely, almost without gaps [1]. Initially it was assumed that large quantities of oil had sunk to the (sublittoral) sea bottom, but this could not be proven and the corresponding polluted areas could not be found. Thus, the catastrophe turned out to be mainly a catastrophe of the eulittoral zone, and the second phase of the combat strategy was to elaborate plans for cleaning the beaches. This is a very complex task, the implementation of which depends on the type of beach affected, on the kind and extent of pollution, its biological importance, the ecological objective, and the technical and financial feasibilities. The investigations presented below were, among others, to answer those questions. During the later examinations we detected an (initially unexpected) self-remediation process [11], so that observation and support of this process were added to the working plans.
3
Beaches: Description of State and Recommendation of Measures
Surveillance of about 400 km by helicopter in June 1991 confirmed the catastrophic data presented by MEPA. In g:neral, the width of the polluted area ranged from the highto the mid-tide level. Due to tidal amplitudes between 1 and 2 meters and due to different slopes of the beaches, the high
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Two Years of Oil Disaster in the Arabian Gulf
and low waterline can be 2 km and more apart from each other. The kind of beach pollution differs and depends on the shape of the beach and the way in which the oil reached the coastline. Other differences with respect to kind and extent of pollution were also caused by former cases of oil pollution, to which the new ones have been added. We classified several types of pollution, each to be combatted by a combination of different measures. These measures range from leaving the area untouched to removing the oiled sediment. The latter seemed necessary in those cases in which asphalt-like crusts or crusts of oil and salt had developed on rarely flooded areas, which entirely inhibited an exchange between sediment and water and between sediment and atmosphere, respectively. Fig. 3, taken in January 1992, gives an impression of the despairing status almost one year after the spill. From the helicopter we selected five coastal stretches (--' the stations in Fig. 2) representing the different beach types and kinds of pollution. We did not consider rocky cliffs. These five stretches of a total length of about 25 km were carefully checked in June/July 1991, in January/February 1992, and in April 1993. The following inspection report is restricted to the description of the pollution, to a prognosis for its development, to recommendations of measures, and to selfremediation processes (for a more detailed report covering 24 field stations see [12]). The results of the biological characterization and recovery have been presented by KRUPP et al. [13, 14], and a final report is in preparation. 3.1
The Five Stations
1. In 1991 Station i on the outer coast ofAbu Ali was hardly or not affected by oil. However, the relatively steep beach in front of a stretch of dunes had become asphalted in variable width after former, unregistered and untreated oil pollution between middle and high tide level. In its lower part the asphalt layer had a biofilm and was an alien element of low biotoxicity in the ecosystem. In its upper part the layer was mostly covered by sand. We found traces of successfully breeding turtles as well as a dense colonization by the crab Ocypode rotundata. In parts coral reefs are located in front of these beach stretches. Here and then, these reefs were damaged by earlier oil spills but, obviously, had not been affected by this new pollution. There were no convincing reasons for a removal. The situation was the same in 1992 and 1993. 2. On the outer (eastern) coast of Station 2 in 1991 the sand was uniformly polluted by on the average 6 kg/m 2 down to a depth of 50 cm. Thus, its color was not whiteyellowish but brown. The sand was dry and able to trickle, its pores were accessible to air and water, all in all good conditions for biodegradation; technical measures did not appear necessary. Developments in the following years were disappointing: even in 1993 there was a heavily polluted sand layer at a depth of about 30 cm. On the inner (western) coast of Station 2 we found sandy mudflats which - between the high and low tide line were 250 m wide and completely polluted by oil. Within areas near the high water line, which are flooded less frequently and for shorter time periods, a tendency to devel-
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op a tar layer could be observed, which prevented an exchange between sediment and water and sediment and atmosphere, respectively. Thus, any benthos activity had discontinued in these areas. In 1991 the minimum measure was to loosen up the soil surface at regular intervals. However, with respect to this severe pollution, a removal of the surface had also to be considered. Until 1993 a slow recovery was found in lower and more humid areas, supported by wave energy. Thin cyanobacterial mats grew directly on oiled sediment (-~ Fig. 4). The latter observation was much more striking at Station 4. Below the low tide line we did not find any visible damages.
mats were found: the whole situation was very similar to that in summer 1991 ( ~ Fig. 6c). At this station the striking effectiveness of cyanobacterial mats against oil was observed first, but this apparently did not induce a recovery process as on beaches inundated by tides more often. For this area a minimum measure was recommended, i.e. a removal in strips (regeneration strips). The embankments which develop due to this kind of removal may cause inpredictable major consequences for the ecosystem. . Station 5 is a long, flat beach which was extremely heavily polluted over a distance of many kilometers. The pollution was about 300 m wide extending from the upper high water line to about the midwater line. In 1991 this was the only site at which we had to limit our stay due to heavy air pollution. There was no sign of plant or animal life ( ~ Fig. 7a). In 1992, on the upper two thirds of the beach, the oil had been converted into a stable and gapless tar or asphalt cover, but 2 - 3 k g / m z extractable oil were still present [7]. Fig. 7b, taken from the same direction, shows that nothing had changed apart from a thin yellow sand layer covering the oiled bottom. On the lower third, cyanobacterial mats grew, dried, and tore into scales, thereby dissecting the tar skin. These mats consisted of the species and families Microcoleus
3. Station 3 is a peninsula in the bay system of Musallamiya. The salt content - which in summer 1991 increased from 40 to 70 %0 between the Stations 2 and 4 - indicated that there was only minimal water exchange, while in winter and spring Musallamiya bay was well mixed. On both sides of the peninsula there were extended salt marshes which - especially on the western shore (i.e. the backside!) and at the top - had been blackened by oil. In 1991, in higher locations, polluted salt marsh plants started to sprout again, but in 1992 and 1993 most of the old plants were dead. The sediment surface was heavily polluted over large areas. The holes dug by crabs (Cleistostoma dotilliformis) which were very close to each other were no longer occul3ied, and even in April 1993 only few inhabitated holes were found. Birds in the area were obviously unable to change their territory. A small pool was heavily polluted in summer 1991 (--" Fig. 5a); in January 1992 it was filled with opulently growing cyanobacteria ( - ' Fig. 5b), and in April 1992 it showed first signs of recovery (--* Fig. 5c).
clothonoplastes, Microcystis aeruginosa, Oscillatoria limnetica, Merismopedia glauca, Nostoc commune, and Anabaena spec. in different ratios. Also present were the chemoorganotrophic microorganisms Bacillus stearothermophilus, Rhodococcus spec., Nocardia spec., and others which have not been identified so far [12]. In 1993 the solidification of the upper zone had continued (the governmental coast guard now uses the asphalted beach instead of the dirty near-coast roads for patrol drives ~ Fig. 7c), but the burden of extractable oil was hardly diminished [12]. The cyanobacterial process had also continued, now extending over many kilometers (-* Fig. 8). Since it was dearly bound to a once-in-a-week tidal inundation zone, we recommended to simulate tides by occasional sea water irrigation, which has not been realized up to now.
Recommendation for an appropriate measure: loosening up the sediment surface by hand, no use of machines, observation at regular intervals, and, as far as possible, support of cyanobacterial growth. 4. Station 4, a Sabkha, which has a depth of 1 - 2 km, is many kilometers long and extends around the west end of the bay. Sabkha means salt pan. In summer it is characterized .by a hard sand-salt crust and by softness in winter. The salt crust develops when an area is rarely flooded and, if so, probably only for a short time period. Extremely low inclines and tide rises within a range of I m create a eulittoral zone up to 2 km in width which is not flooded regularly. In the Gulf at least two tide regimes overlap which cause a complicated tidal regime. This explains why oil can be deposited on the beaches and is rarely flooded afterwards, as in the present case. Oil and salt converted into a fatally thick black cover with a width of 1 km and a thickness of about 10 cm ( - ' Fig. 6a). Assuming a pollution with a layer of 5 mm oil (as an absolute minimum), which is 5,000 m 3 per km 2, means that in this area several ten-thousand m 3 of oil covered the beach. In 1991 pools of liquid oil occurred. In January 1992 we were surprised to find cyanobacteria forming a beige-colored mat on oil polluted sediments but not in unpolluted areas ( ~ Fig. 6b). In April 1993 when the Sabkha was much drier, only traces of the bacterial
40
For the upper zone we recommended to plough test areas in 1992, which was done ( ~ Fig. 9). One year later sediment aeration was clearly better than in unploughed reference areas. Resettlement by benthic organisms, however, could not be observed.
4
Discussion
Oil-polluted beaches totaling a stretch of 644 km are synonymous with the disappearance of a great part of the intertidal biological life. This loss is certainly of ecological significance but cannot be described precisely. Before the oil disaster, biological investigations in the Gulf had mainly concentrated on "precious objects" as seagrass meadows, mangrove stocks, corals as well as special organisms. The regular biological life of the extensive "common" areas has not been systematically investigated. This regular life ap-
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pears to be characterized by high individuum and biomass density [15]; however, the productivity rate is probably low. Like the North Sea mudflats, the Gulf mudflats are also the nutritional basis for a major population of migratory and breeding birds, which might have been most hardly affected by the disaster Comparisons between 1991, 1992, and 1993 were made to assess the progress. Compared with the results of June/July 1991, the status in January/February 1992 and April 1993 had not significantly improved, with the exception of the cyanobacterial process. As expected, beaches with old tar covers (Station 1) had remained unchanged. No improvement was expected for beaches contaminated in 1991 and sealed by tar skin (Stations 2-west and 5). This was confirmed in 1992 and 1993 with the exception of the regularly inundated zone (see below). The state of the oiled Sabkha (Station 4) was not expected to improve; the significance of the surprising growth of cyanobacteria is unclear. Oil elimination and degradation were thought to be probable for sediments of exposed beaches (Station 2-east); however, progress was minimal. This characterization is valid for the upper intertidal zone. The state of the lower intertidal zone is better, in some cases even unaffected.
In summer 1991 even careful inspection did not reveal any sign of a promising natural bioremediation process. In the more humid season cyanobacterial mats were found on top of the oil layers. In some cases it seemed that their growth was even favored by the oil pollution. The processes of growth, drying, and shrinking of the mats fracture the hard and gapless tar covers, enabling oxygen access, and opening niches for recolonization. Cyanobacterial populations are associated with oil-degrading bacteria [11]. It can hardly be determined whether the latter degrade oil on the beaches. It may be assumed that these bacteria meet with more favorable living conditions in the mats than on beaches without mats. Since this process occurred at numerous stations, its discovery is one of the major results of our field work. Before our observations, the insensitivity of the mats to tar and oil was only mentioned by PL~,/TE-Ct3NY et al. [16] after the AMOCO CADIZ accident. The observation was judged negatively since it was assumed that the mats prevented biodegradation by exclusion of oxygen. As to the Gulf coast, it cannot be excluded that the exuberant growth of cyanobacterial mats is due to the absence of consumers. There are only few data from the years before 1991 concerning the occurrence of cyanobacteria in the examined area [17]; in general, cyanobacterial mats belong to the natural ecosystem of the intertidal Gulf zone [18]. They are always communities of the same species, which corresponds with our observations. They have different morphologies and colors, which depends on the dominant species and on the growth conditions. Whatever may have been the conditions before, at present cyanobacteria supply most, if not all, biomass on the polluted sediments. Up to now technical restoration measures did not exceed the level of test runs. For true purification, 1.3 million m 3 of oil-polluted sand would need to be cleaned [1]; an acceptable concept has not been established so far (in addition, long
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rocky coast stretches are to be cleaned). To collect oiled sediments in disposal sites in the desert is commonly rejected for technical and ecological reasons. The costs incurred are assumed to amount to $ 500 million. The restoration of the Gulf does not depend on research deficiencies. The problem is the lack of an environmental quality objective for setting up the corresponding restoration measures. The European Community suggested a "Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region" [13, 14]. This program would project a status evaluation as well as the development into a nature reserve of both the most sensitive and most affected bay systems, Daft and Musallamiya ( ~ Fig. 2). The natural remediation process by cyanobacteria is restricted to the frequently inundated zone. Methods should be developed to carry this process into areas which are not regularly reached by the tides. Spraying these areas with seawater at regular intervals would probably be sufficient. This would be an inexpensive and non-polluting technical measure, which would correspond with the principles of a Wildlife Sanctuary.
5
Concluding Remark
Saudi-Arabia might have been considered as ecologically invulnerable due to its size, its low population density, and its economic status. The oil disaster has been a shock with far-reaching consequences for this nation. However, the pollution of the coasts has not meant a major impact on public consciousness. The coast is desert and difficult to reach. The coast does not serve as a resort both because of climatic conditions and the country's customs. The air pollution by the burning oil, visible along the east coast, contributed more to the shock than the polluted beaches. The "Updated Scientific Report on the Environmental Effects of the Conflict between Iraq and Kuwait" of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) was concluded in May 1992 and published in March 1993 [3]. As far as marine damage is concerned, the report refers mainly to the results from the NOAA expedition of the research vessel Mount Mitchell between February and June 1992. The national Saudi Arabian results [1, 2] are completely disregarded as well as the long-term results of the CEC-project [13, 14]. The report describes the expedition as the "culmination" of efforts by the United Nations. In our opinion neither the results of the Mount Mitchell expedition presented in the report nor the publications dealing with the expedition correspond with the claim of the report: "The results of the international expedition will provide the scientific basis for the rehabilitation of the marine and coastal environment in the ROPME area". The report does not refer to the crucial point: The oil catastrophe in the Gulf proved to be an environmental disaster for the intertidal area, and (apart from the oiled Kuwaiti desert) all other aspects are of secondary importance.
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Two Years of Oil Disaster in the Arabian Gulf
Acknowledgements Our visit to the Gulf in 1991 was made possible through an invitation by MEPA and was supported by the German Umweltbundesamt (UBA). The visit in 1992 was connected with the CEC/NCWCD project "Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region" and supported by the Commission of the European Communities. The visit in 1993 was within the scientific exchange between ICBM (University of Oldenburg) and the King Fahd University for Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM) in Dhahran; support was granted by the German Federal Ministry of Research and Technology (BMFT) and by the KFUPM. We thank Prof. Dr. Samir RADWAN,Prof. Dr. Redha AL-HAS~.N,and Dr. NASERA. SORKOH(Dept. of Botany and Microbiology, University of Kuwait) for valuable discussions (confirming our assumptions about distribution and functions of cyanobacterial mats) and for participating in an excursion to Station 4. Photographs: Prof. Dr. Th. H(SPNER, ICBM, University of Oldenburg.
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[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11] [12]
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References
[1]
METEOROLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ADMINISTRATION (MEPA). Gulf Oil Spill and Shoreline Cleanup Assessment. Vol. II. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Defence and Aviation. Jeddah 1991 KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA, ROYAL COMMISSION FOR JUBAIL AND YANBU: Khaleej Mardumah Oil Slick Clean-Up Operations. Jubail 1992 GOVERNING COUNCIL OF THE UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMME (UNEP): Updated Scientific Report on the Environmental Effects of the Conflict Between lraq and Kuwait (UNEP/GC.17/Inf.9). 8 March 1993 OIL SPILL INTELLIGENCE REPORT (OSIR) March 1992, Arlington MA, USA L. d'OzouvILLE; S. BERNIe;E. R. GUNDLACH;M. O. HAYES:Evolution de la pollution du littoral Breton par les hydrocarbures de I'AMOCO CADIZ entre Mars 1978 et Novembre 1979.55ff., in: AMOCO CADIZ, Constquences d'une pollution accidentelle par les hydrocarbures. Centre National pour l'Exploitation des Octans, Paris 1981 Th. HtPNER: Die Olkatastrophe am Golf. Zwischenbilanz, Zustandsbeschreibung, Magnahmen, Prognosen. UWSF-Z. Umweltchem. Okotox. 3: 3 5 4 - 3 6 1 (1991)
[2]
[3]
[4] [5]
[6]
7
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
Th. HOPNER;H. FELZMANN;H. STRUCK:Oil Pollution Status Report January/February 1992, in: Establishment of a Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region. Final Report for Phase I. F. KRUPP, (Ed.): 5 2 - 80. Jubail and Frankfurt 1992 H. STRUCK; H. FELZMANN; Th. HOPNER: Oil Polluted SaudiArabian Beaches: one year after the Catastrophe. Erd61 und Kohle, Erdgas, Petrochemie 46:163 - 166 (1993) Th. HOPNER; L. BERTHE-CORTI;H. HARDER; M. MACHAELSEN: Die Olkatastrophe im Persisch-Arabischen Golf. Erdtl und Kohle, Erdgas, Petrochemie 44: 1 9 7 - 2 0 0 (1991) Th. HOPNER: The Offshore Oil Biodegradation Capacity of the Persian Gulf. (An Assessment from Literature Data). Proceedings of The First International Conference on the Impact of Oil Spill in the Persian Gulf. Tehran, May 2 0 - 27, 1984: 6 5 - 91. Tehran: University Press (1985) N. SORKHOH; R. AL-HASAN; S. RADWAN; Th. HOPNER: SelfCleaning of the Gulf. Nature 359:109 (1992) Th. HOPNER;H. F E ~ ; H. STRUCK;K.-H. van BERNEM:The Nature and Extent of Oil Contamination on Saudi-Arabian Beaches of Dawhat ad Dafi and Dawhat ad Musallamiya in Summer 1991 and Winter 1991/92. The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering 18: 2 4 3 - 255 (1993) F. KRUPp(Ed.): Establishment of a Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region. Final Report for Phase I. Jubail and Frankfurt (1991) F. KRUPP(Ed.): Establishment of a Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region. Interim Report for Phase II. Jubail and Frankfurt (1993) D. A. JONES: A Field Guide to the Sea Shores of Kuwait and the Arabian Gulf. University of Kuwait. Distributed by Blandford Press, Poole (Dorset) U. K., (1986) M. R. PLANTE-CLrNY;T. Le CAMPION-ALSuMARD;E. V^CELET:Influence de la pollution due L'Amoco Cadiz sur les peuplements bacttriens et microphytiques des marais marifimes de L'lle Grande. 2. Peuplements mikrophytiques, in: Amoco Cadiz. Constquences d'une pollution accidenteUe par les hydrocarbures: 429 - 442. Centre National pour l'Exploitation des Octans. Paris (1981) A. A L - T ~ ; K. AL-HIN~: Preliminary Damage Assessment of Algal Mat Sites Located in the Gulf Following the 1991 Oil Spill. Mar. Poll. Bull. (in press) S. GOLUBIC:Microbial Mats of Abu Dhabi, in: Environmental Evolution. L. MARGULIS (Ed.): 1 0 3 - 1 4 7 . Cambridge, The MIT Press (1992)
Illustrations
Fig. 1: The main temporary oil dump close to Station S at the southern end of the Bay of Daft. The volume was assessed as 93,000 m 3 [2]. In spring 1992 the content was sold for 1 million $ and is now being removed into refineries
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Two Years of Oil Disaster in the Arabian Gulf
Fig. 2: The most seriously polluted bay systems of Musallamiya and Daft on the Saudi-Arabian Gulf coast. Station numbers are indicated. The broken line indicates the approximate boundaries of the area to be restored and developed by the EC project [12, 13]
Fig. 3: Aerial photograph of an intertidal area at low tide between Stations 4 and S, taken from a helicopter on January 20, 1992
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5h
Fig. 4: A thin but stable cyanobacterial mat growing directly on oiled sediment. Removal of the mat means removal of a thin oilcontaining sediment layer. Photograph taken at Station 2-west on April 12, 1993
5r
5a
Fig. 5: A small pool at Station 3, reached by the tides only at extremely high floods. 5a: Picture taken on June 20, 1991.5b: On January 26, 1992, cyanobacterial mats are vasty growing on the oiled bottom of the pool. 5ci On April 12, 1993, cyanobacterial mats no longer dominate. Macrophytes are recovering, regeneration is in fiall progress
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Two Years of Oil Disaster in the Arabian Gulf 6a
6b
6e
Fig. 6: Western end of the polluted zone of the Sabkha at Station 4, about 1 km apart from the normal high-water line. The oil arrived from the left. 6a: June 22, 1991. The bright color of the unoiled right side is due to a sand-salt crust. 6b: January 26, 1992. In the more humid season the oiled sediment is covered by a beige-colored cyanobacterial mat which ends abrupdy with the end of the oiled zone. 6c: April 5, 1993. In the dry season cyanobacteria are absent and the situation is similar to that in 1991
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Zb
7a
7c Fig. 7: Station S, a uniformly polluted beach, about 300 m wide. 7a: On June 21, 1991.7b: On January 23, 1992, the oil solidified and is covered by a very thin sand layer; no substantial change. 7c: On April 8, 1993, the beach is "asphalted" and still devoid of any traces of higher life
Fig. 8: Cyanobacterial mats growing on low-lying oiled sediments of Station 5 which are frequently inundated by the tides. The mats and the polluted sediment layer are fractured. April 8, 1993
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Fig. 9: The upper zone of Station 5, rarely reached by the tide water was plowed in spring 1992 to loosen the asphalt crust and to imitate the fracturing power of the cyanobacterial mats. April 8, 1993
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Status Report
Two Years of Oil Disaster in the Arabian Gulf Thomas H6pner, Karl-Heinz van Bernem 1, Harald Felzmann, Holger Struck Institute of Chemistry and Biologyof the Marine Environment (ICBM), Carl-von-Ossietzky-Universit~t,D-26111 Oldenburg, and GKSS-Research Center, D-21502 Geesthacht1, Germany
Abstract In January-February 1991, about I million ms of crude oil were released into the Arabian Gulf as a means of ecologicalwarfare. A ;tretch of 644 km along the Saudi Arabian coast was heavilypolluted over a width between a few meters and more than one kilometer. In four studies performed between March 1991 and April 1993 the state of representative areas of the affected coast was examined with the result that only minor changes were found in those oiled zones which are seldom inundated by the tides. Technical measures up to I993 did not exceed the test level. A biological regeneration process is in progress which was not recognizedas such in analyses of previous coastal oil pollution. Cyanobacterial mats, containing hydrocarbon-degradingbacteria, grow on oiled sediments which are regularlyreached by tidal water. Shrinkingand fracturingof the stable tar crusts starts a process of loosening and degrading of aged hydrocarbons.
1
Amount of Oil
The "Maximum Credible Accident" on the German North Sea coast is the one in which 50,000 m 3 of oil may be spilt. The protective measures are geared to this extreme case. By definition a maximum credible accident can be exceeded, but not combatted. Thus, the term "Super-Maximum Credible Accident" is in use. Lack as well as withholding of information did not only accompany the Gulf War but also the field of ecological warfare and its aftermath. Thus, exact time, places of spill, as well as the originators of the catastrophe are not entirely known. However, it is most likely correct to believe that the oil was pumped and released into the Gulf deliberately or at least with the conscious acceptance of an ecological catastrophe. When the German Minister of Environmental Affairs, Klaus TOPFER, and his team of experts visited the Saudi-Arabian Meteorology and Environmental Agency (MEPA) in March 1991, 0.5 million m 3 were indicated to be a determined and consolidated amount. At the beginning of July 1991 the MEPA was able to complete the first phase of the combat measures: the oil on the water surface had either been removed by land-based activities or had been degraded biologically. In any case, there was no further evidence of floating oil. In a provisional balance compiled at the end of June 1991, the MEPA indicated the amount taken up to be 300,000 m s [1]; from these
38
154,000 m 3 were removed between March 4 and April 23 at Khaleej Mardumah, the southern end of the Dawhat (Bay) ad Dafi (-~ Station 5, see Fig. 2). 93,000 m 3 of this amount were dumped into a temporary disposal site (-* Fig. 1) [2] from where it has been taken to refineries. Besides these collected 300,000 m 3, huge amounts of oil cover a eulittoral strip of 644 km in length, which most likely exceeds 200,000 m 3. The UNEP report of May 1992 [3] assesses 0.94 to 1.25 million m 3, the Oil Spill Intelligence Report [4] 1.0 million m 3, i.e. about 20 times more than in the case of the German Maximum Credible Accident (the amount of oil spilt into the Kuwaiti desert is assessed to have been 10 million m 3 or more!). Altogether, these figures render the oil catastrophe in the Gulf the biggest marine accident by far in the history of crude oil, the Super-Maximum Credible Accident. Dawhat ad Daft (-~ Fig. 2) is formed by the islands of A1 Batinah and Abu Ali, which were linked to the mainland by dams at the beginning of the eighties. After the oil from Kuwait had affected the whole stretch of the coast, it gathered in the bay and did not move past Abu Ali; the coast to the south remained exempted. At Gurmah the oil accumulated to a thick layer, which sometimes was more than 10 cm, so that it could be soaked up without costly and slow skimmer facilities. The AMACO CADIZ catastrophe served as an example for an elaboration of a generally accepted index of the sensitivity of coastal areas to oil accidents [5]. The index ranges from 1 (insensitive) to 10 (extremely sensitive). Grade 10 would apply to the salt marshes which directly adjoin the high tide level of the tidal coasts. Grade 9 applies to tidal coasts on which sand and mud areas fall dry at ebb. The Kuwaiti and Saudi-Arabian Gulf coasts belong to this category. (In this and several other respects they have striking similarities to the German North Sea coast). Thus, in evaluating the oil catastrophe in the Gulf it has to be considered that an unprecedented amount of oil affects a coast of the most sensitive kind. After a short orientation visit in March 1991 (as a delegation member of the Federal Minister of Environmental Affairs) and field studies in June/July 1991, an interim report was issued [6]. Studies in January/February 1992 (as a member of the EC-project [7]) resulted in a status report after one year [8]. A field study project in April 1993 (as a visiting scientist to the University of Dhahran) is the basis for this new report two years after the catastrophe.
ESPR-Environ. Sci. & Pollut. Res. 1 (1) 3 8 - 4 6 (1994) 9 ecomed publishers, D-86899 Landsberg, Germany
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2
Behavior and Dispersal of the Oil
Within a short time period about 40 % of the Kuwaiti oil evaporated. It is not confirmed whether this share is included in the figures given above [3, 4]. Amounts yet unknown have been biodegraded in the water phase. The oil's behavior, the fact that the relatively light Kuwaiti oil is basically degradable, and the existing nutrient and temperature conditions gave rise to the assumption that within a few years the Gulf would be able to cope with the pollution by degradation and aging of the oil [9]. For decades the Gulf has been chronically polluted by oil and seems to have been able to cope with the first use of oil as a means of ecological warfare (bombardment of the Iranian Nowruz oil drilling platforms by Iraqis in 1983/84) without collapsing ecologically [10]. As long as oil is liquid and drifts on the open sea the effects are mostly not as drastic as otherwise. In contrast to other cases, the floating oil was not transformed into a water-in-oil emulsion by wave energy. Even after a drift distance of 300 km it was still liquid and pumpable, which indicates that there was only little wind at the time in question. Liquid oil had been pushed onto the beaches in large slicks by onshore winds at high tide and had been deposited on the sediments at ebb. This explains the occurrence of large areas of polluted eulittoral (i.e. area between low and high tide level on tidal coasts). By insolation and further evaporation a solid oil-sand mixture was formed, which did not surface when flooded. According to MEPA's observations, on a coastal stretch of 765 km (from the border of Kuwait south of the Mina A1 Ahmadi, where most of the oil had been pumped into the Gulf, and the Abu Ali island) as much as 644 km were polluted completely, almost without gaps [1]. Initially it was assumed that large quantities of oil had sunk to the (sublittoral) sea bottom, but this could not be proven and the corresponding polluted areas could not be found. Thus, the catastrophe turned out to be mainly a catastrophe of the eulittoral zone, and the second phase of the combat strategy was to elaborate plans for cleaning the beaches. This is a very complex task, the implementation of which depends on the type of beach affected, on the kind and extent of pollution, its biological importance, the ecological objective, and the technical and financial feasibilities. The investigations presented below were, among others, to answer those questions. During the later examinations we detected an (initially unexpected) self-remediation process [11], so that observation and support of this process were added to the working plans.
3
Beaches: Description of State and Recommendation of Measures
Surveillance of about 400 km by helicopter in June 1991 confirmed the catastrophic data presented by MEPA. In g:neral, the width of the polluted area ranged from the highto the mid-tide level. Due to tidal amplitudes between 1 and 2 meters and due to different slopes of the beaches, the high
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and low waterline can be 2 km and more apart from each other. The kind of beach pollution differs and depends on the shape of the beach and the way in which the oil reached the coastline. Other differences with respect to kind and extent of pollution were also caused by former cases of oil pollution, to which the new ones have been added. We classified several types of pollution, each to be combatted by a combination of different measures. These measures range from leaving the area untouched to removing the oiled sediment. The latter seemed necessary in those cases in which asphalt-like crusts or crusts of oil and salt had developed on rarely flooded areas, which entirely inhibited an exchange between sediment and water and between sediment and atmosphere, respectively. Fig. 3, taken in January 1992, gives an impression of the despairing status almost one year after the spill. From the helicopter we selected five coastal stretches (--' the stations in Fig. 2) representing the different beach types and kinds of pollution. We did not consider rocky cliffs. These five stretches of a total length of about 25 km were carefully checked in June/July 1991, in January/February 1992, and in April 1993. The following inspection report is restricted to the description of the pollution, to a prognosis for its development, to recommendations of measures, and to selfremediation processes (for a more detailed report covering 24 field stations see [12]). The results of the biological characterization and recovery have been presented by KRUPP et al. [13, 14], and a final report is in preparation. 3.1
The Five Stations
1. In 1991 Station i on the outer coast ofAbu Ali was hardly or not affected by oil. However, the relatively steep beach in front of a stretch of dunes had become asphalted in variable width after former, unregistered and untreated oil pollution between middle and high tide level. In its lower part the asphalt layer had a biofilm and was an alien element of low biotoxicity in the ecosystem. In its upper part the layer was mostly covered by sand. We found traces of successfully breeding turtles as well as a dense colonization by the crab Ocypode rotundata. In parts coral reefs are located in front of these beach stretches. Here and then, these reefs were damaged by earlier oil spills but, obviously, had not been affected by this new pollution. There were no convincing reasons for a removal. The situation was the same in 1992 and 1993. 2. On the outer (eastern) coast of Station 2 in 1991 the sand was uniformly polluted by on the average 6 kg/m 2 down to a depth of 50 cm. Thus, its color was not whiteyellowish but brown. The sand was dry and able to trickle, its pores were accessible to air and water, all in all good conditions for biodegradation; technical measures did not appear necessary. Developments in the following years were disappointing: even in 1993 there was a heavily polluted sand layer at a depth of about 30 cm. On the inner (western) coast of Station 2 we found sandy mudflats which - between the high and low tide line were 250 m wide and completely polluted by oil. Within areas near the high water line, which are flooded less frequently and for shorter time periods, a tendency to devel-
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op a tar layer could be observed, which prevented an exchange between sediment and water and sediment and atmosphere, respectively. Thus, any benthos activity had discontinued in these areas. In 1991 the minimum measure was to loosen up the soil surface at regular intervals. However, with respect to this severe pollution, a removal of the surface had also to be considered. Until 1993 a slow recovery was found in lower and more humid areas, supported by wave energy. Thin cyanobacterial mats grew directly on oiled sediment (-~ Fig. 4). The latter observation was much more striking at Station 4. Below the low tide line we did not find any visible damages.
mats were found: the whole situation was very similar to that in summer 1991 ( ~ Fig. 6c). At this station the striking effectiveness of cyanobacterial mats against oil was observed first, but this apparently did not induce a recovery process as on beaches inundated by tides more often. For this area a minimum measure was recommended, i.e. a removal in strips (regeneration strips). The embankments which develop due to this kind of removal may cause inpredictable major consequences for the ecosystem. . Station 5 is a long, flat beach which was extremely heavily polluted over a distance of many kilometers. The pollution was about 300 m wide extending from the upper high water line to about the midwater line. In 1991 this was the only site at which we had to limit our stay due to heavy air pollution. There was no sign of plant or animal life ( ~ Fig. 7a). In 1992, on the upper two thirds of the beach, the oil had been converted into a stable and gapless tar or asphalt cover, but 2 - 3 k g / m z extractable oil were still present [7]. Fig. 7b, taken from the same direction, shows that nothing had changed apart from a thin yellow sand layer covering the oiled bottom. On the lower third, cyanobacterial mats grew, dried, and tore into scales, thereby dissecting the tar skin. These mats consisted of the species and families Microcoleus
3. Station 3 is a peninsula in the bay system of Musallamiya. The salt content - which in summer 1991 increased from 40 to 70 %0 between the Stations 2 and 4 - indicated that there was only minimal water exchange, while in winter and spring Musallamiya bay was well mixed. On both sides of the peninsula there were extended salt marshes which - especially on the western shore (i.e. the backside!) and at the top - had been blackened by oil. In 1991, in higher locations, polluted salt marsh plants started to sprout again, but in 1992 and 1993 most of the old plants were dead. The sediment surface was heavily polluted over large areas. The holes dug by crabs (Cleistostoma dotilliformis) which were very close to each other were no longer occul3ied, and even in April 1993 only few inhabitated holes were found. Birds in the area were obviously unable to change their territory. A small pool was heavily polluted in summer 1991 (--" Fig. 5a); in January 1992 it was filled with opulently growing cyanobacteria ( - ' Fig. 5b), and in April 1992 it showed first signs of recovery (--* Fig. 5c).
clothonoplastes, Microcystis aeruginosa, Oscillatoria limnetica, Merismopedia glauca, Nostoc commune, and Anabaena spec. in different ratios. Also present were the chemoorganotrophic microorganisms Bacillus stearothermophilus, Rhodococcus spec., Nocardia spec., and others which have not been identified so far [12]. In 1993 the solidification of the upper zone had continued (the governmental coast guard now uses the asphalted beach instead of the dirty near-coast roads for patrol drives ~ Fig. 7c), but the burden of extractable oil was hardly diminished [12]. The cyanobacterial process had also continued, now extending over many kilometers (-* Fig. 8). Since it was dearly bound to a once-in-a-week tidal inundation zone, we recommended to simulate tides by occasional sea water irrigation, which has not been realized up to now.
Recommendation for an appropriate measure: loosening up the sediment surface by hand, no use of machines, observation at regular intervals, and, as far as possible, support of cyanobacterial growth. 4. Station 4, a Sabkha, which has a depth of 1 - 2 km, is many kilometers long and extends around the west end of the bay. Sabkha means salt pan. In summer it is characterized .by a hard sand-salt crust and by softness in winter. The salt crust develops when an area is rarely flooded and, if so, probably only for a short time period. Extremely low inclines and tide rises within a range of I m create a eulittoral zone up to 2 km in width which is not flooded regularly. In the Gulf at least two tide regimes overlap which cause a complicated tidal regime. This explains why oil can be deposited on the beaches and is rarely flooded afterwards, as in the present case. Oil and salt converted into a fatally thick black cover with a width of 1 km and a thickness of about 10 cm ( - ' Fig. 6a). Assuming a pollution with a layer of 5 mm oil (as an absolute minimum), which is 5,000 m 3 per km 2, means that in this area several ten-thousand m 3 of oil covered the beach. In 1991 pools of liquid oil occurred. In January 1992 we were surprised to find cyanobacteria forming a beige-colored mat on oil polluted sediments but not in unpolluted areas ( ~ Fig. 6b). In April 1993 when the Sabkha was much drier, only traces of the bacterial
40
For the upper zone we recommended to plough test areas in 1992, which was done ( ~ Fig. 9). One year later sediment aeration was clearly better than in unploughed reference areas. Resettlement by benthic organisms, however, could not be observed.
4
Discussion
Oil-polluted beaches totaling a stretch of 644 km are synonymous with the disappearance of a great part of the intertidal biological life. This loss is certainly of ecological significance but cannot be described precisely. Before the oil disaster, biological investigations in the Gulf had mainly concentrated on "precious objects" as seagrass meadows, mangrove stocks, corals as well as special organisms. The regular biological life of the extensive "common" areas has not been systematically investigated. This regular life ap-
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pears to be characterized by high individuum and biomass density [15]; however, the productivity rate is probably low. Like the North Sea mudflats, the Gulf mudflats are also the nutritional basis for a major population of migratory and breeding birds, which might have been most hardly affected by the disaster Comparisons between 1991, 1992, and 1993 were made to assess the progress. Compared with the results of June/July 1991, the status in January/February 1992 and April 1993 had not significantly improved, with the exception of the cyanobacterial process. As expected, beaches with old tar covers (Station 1) had remained unchanged. No improvement was expected for beaches contaminated in 1991 and sealed by tar skin (Stations 2-west and 5). This was confirmed in 1992 and 1993 with the exception of the regularly inundated zone (see below). The state of the oiled Sabkha (Station 4) was not expected to improve; the significance of the surprising growth of cyanobacteria is unclear. Oil elimination and degradation were thought to be probable for sediments of exposed beaches (Station 2-east); however, progress was minimal. This characterization is valid for the upper intertidal zone. The state of the lower intertidal zone is better, in some cases even unaffected.
In summer 1991 even careful inspection did not reveal any sign of a promising natural bioremediation process. In the more humid season cyanobacterial mats were found on top of the oil layers. In some cases it seemed that their growth was even favored by the oil pollution. The processes of growth, drying, and shrinking of the mats fracture the hard and gapless tar covers, enabling oxygen access, and opening niches for recolonization. Cyanobacterial populations are associated with oil-degrading bacteria [11]. It can hardly be determined whether the latter degrade oil on the beaches. It may be assumed that these bacteria meet with more favorable living conditions in the mats than on beaches without mats. Since this process occurred at numerous stations, its discovery is one of the major results of our field work. Before our observations, the insensitivity of the mats to tar and oil was only mentioned by PL~,/TE-Ct3NY et al. [16] after the AMOCO CADIZ accident. The observation was judged negatively since it was assumed that the mats prevented biodegradation by exclusion of oxygen. As to the Gulf coast, it cannot be excluded that the exuberant growth of cyanobacterial mats is due to the absence of consumers. There are only few data from the years before 1991 concerning the occurrence of cyanobacteria in the examined area [17]; in general, cyanobacterial mats belong to the natural ecosystem of the intertidal Gulf zone [18]. They are always communities of the same species, which corresponds with our observations. They have different morphologies and colors, which depends on the dominant species and on the growth conditions. Whatever may have been the conditions before, at present cyanobacteria supply most, if not all, biomass on the polluted sediments. Up to now technical restoration measures did not exceed the level of test runs. For true purification, 1.3 million m 3 of oil-polluted sand would need to be cleaned [1]; an acceptable concept has not been established so far (in addition, long
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rocky coast stretches are to be cleaned). To collect oiled sediments in disposal sites in the desert is commonly rejected for technical and ecological reasons. The costs incurred are assumed to amount to $ 500 million. The restoration of the Gulf does not depend on research deficiencies. The problem is the lack of an environmental quality objective for setting up the corresponding restoration measures. The European Community suggested a "Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region" [13, 14]. This program would project a status evaluation as well as the development into a nature reserve of both the most sensitive and most affected bay systems, Daft and Musallamiya ( ~ Fig. 2). The natural remediation process by cyanobacteria is restricted to the frequently inundated zone. Methods should be developed to carry this process into areas which are not regularly reached by the tides. Spraying these areas with seawater at regular intervals would probably be sufficient. This would be an inexpensive and non-polluting technical measure, which would correspond with the principles of a Wildlife Sanctuary.
5
Concluding Remark
Saudi-Arabia might have been considered as ecologically invulnerable due to its size, its low population density, and its economic status. The oil disaster has been a shock with far-reaching consequences for this nation. However, the pollution of the coasts has not meant a major impact on public consciousness. The coast is desert and difficult to reach. The coast does not serve as a resort both because of climatic conditions and the country's customs. The air pollution by the burning oil, visible along the east coast, contributed more to the shock than the polluted beaches. The "Updated Scientific Report on the Environmental Effects of the Conflict between Iraq and Kuwait" of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) was concluded in May 1992 and published in March 1993 [3]. As far as marine damage is concerned, the report refers mainly to the results from the NOAA expedition of the research vessel Mount Mitchell between February and June 1992. The national Saudi Arabian results [1, 2] are completely disregarded as well as the long-term results of the CEC-project [13, 14]. The report describes the expedition as the "culmination" of efforts by the United Nations. In our opinion neither the results of the Mount Mitchell expedition presented in the report nor the publications dealing with the expedition correspond with the claim of the report: "The results of the international expedition will provide the scientific basis for the rehabilitation of the marine and coastal environment in the ROPME area". The report does not refer to the crucial point: The oil catastrophe in the Gulf proved to be an environmental disaster for the intertidal area, and (apart from the oiled Kuwaiti desert) all other aspects are of secondary importance.
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Two Years of Oil Disaster in the Arabian Gulf
Acknowledgements Our visit to the Gulf in 1991 was made possible through an invitation by MEPA and was supported by the German Umweltbundesamt (UBA). The visit in 1992 was connected with the CEC/NCWCD project "Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region" and supported by the Commission of the European Communities. The visit in 1993 was within the scientific exchange between ICBM (University of Oldenburg) and the King Fahd University for Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM) in Dhahran; support was granted by the German Federal Ministry of Research and Technology (BMFT) and by the KFUPM. We thank Prof. Dr. Samir RADWAN,Prof. Dr. Redha AL-HAS~.N,and Dr. NASERA. SORKOH(Dept. of Botany and Microbiology, University of Kuwait) for valuable discussions (confirming our assumptions about distribution and functions of cyanobacterial mats) and for participating in an excursion to Station 4. Photographs: Prof. Dr. Th. H(SPNER, ICBM, University of Oldenburg.
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[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11] [12]
6
References
[1]
METEOROLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ADMINISTRATION (MEPA). Gulf Oil Spill and Shoreline Cleanup Assessment. Vol. II. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Defence and Aviation. Jeddah 1991 KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA, ROYAL COMMISSION FOR JUBAIL AND YANBU: Khaleej Mardumah Oil Slick Clean-Up Operations. Jubail 1992 GOVERNING COUNCIL OF THE UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMME (UNEP): Updated Scientific Report on the Environmental Effects of the Conflict Between lraq and Kuwait (UNEP/GC.17/Inf.9). 8 March 1993 OIL SPILL INTELLIGENCE REPORT (OSIR) March 1992, Arlington MA, USA L. d'OzouvILLE; S. BERNIe;E. R. GUNDLACH;M. O. HAYES:Evolution de la pollution du littoral Breton par les hydrocarbures de I'AMOCO CADIZ entre Mars 1978 et Novembre 1979.55ff., in: AMOCO CADIZ, Constquences d'une pollution accidentelle par les hydrocarbures. Centre National pour l'Exploitation des Octans, Paris 1981 Th. HtPNER: Die Olkatastrophe am Golf. Zwischenbilanz, Zustandsbeschreibung, Magnahmen, Prognosen. UWSF-Z. Umweltchem. Okotox. 3: 3 5 4 - 3 6 1 (1991)
[2]
[3]
[4] [5]
[6]
7
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
Th. HOPNER;H. FELZMANN;H. STRUCK:Oil Pollution Status Report January/February 1992, in: Establishment of a Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region. Final Report for Phase I. F. KRUPP, (Ed.): 5 2 - 80. Jubail and Frankfurt 1992 H. STRUCK; H. FELZMANN; Th. HOPNER: Oil Polluted SaudiArabian Beaches: one year after the Catastrophe. Erd61 und Kohle, Erdgas, Petrochemie 46:163 - 166 (1993) Th. HOPNER; L. BERTHE-CORTI;H. HARDER; M. MACHAELSEN: Die Olkatastrophe im Persisch-Arabischen Golf. Erdtl und Kohle, Erdgas, Petrochemie 44: 1 9 7 - 2 0 0 (1991) Th. HOPNER: The Offshore Oil Biodegradation Capacity of the Persian Gulf. (An Assessment from Literature Data). Proceedings of The First International Conference on the Impact of Oil Spill in the Persian Gulf. Tehran, May 2 0 - 27, 1984: 6 5 - 91. Tehran: University Press (1985) N. SORKHOH; R. AL-HASAN; S. RADWAN; Th. HOPNER: SelfCleaning of the Gulf. Nature 359:109 (1992) Th. HOPNER;H. F E ~ ; H. STRUCK;K.-H. van BERNEM:The Nature and Extent of Oil Contamination on Saudi-Arabian Beaches of Dawhat ad Dafi and Dawhat ad Musallamiya in Summer 1991 and Winter 1991/92. The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering 18: 2 4 3 - 255 (1993) F. KRUPp(Ed.): Establishment of a Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region. Final Report for Phase I. Jubail and Frankfurt (1991) F. KRUPP(Ed.): Establishment of a Marine Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region. Interim Report for Phase II. Jubail and Frankfurt (1993) D. A. JONES: A Field Guide to the Sea Shores of Kuwait and the Arabian Gulf. University of Kuwait. Distributed by Blandford Press, Poole (Dorset) U. K., (1986) M. R. PLANTE-CLrNY;T. Le CAMPION-ALSuMARD;E. V^CELET:Influence de la pollution due L'Amoco Cadiz sur les peuplements bacttriens et microphytiques des marais marifimes de L'lle Grande. 2. Peuplements mikrophytiques, in: Amoco Cadiz. Constquences d'une pollution accidenteUe par les hydrocarbures: 429 - 442. Centre National pour l'Exploitation des Octans. Paris (1981) A. A L - T ~ ; K. AL-HIN~: Preliminary Damage Assessment of Algal Mat Sites Located in the Gulf Following the 1991 Oil Spill. Mar. Poll. Bull. (in press) S. GOLUBIC:Microbial Mats of Abu Dhabi, in: Environmental Evolution. L. MARGULIS (Ed.): 1 0 3 - 1 4 7 . Cambridge, The MIT Press (1992)
Illustrations
Fig. 1: The main temporary oil dump close to Station S at the southern end of the Bay of Daft. The volume was assessed as 93,000 m 3 [2]. In spring 1992 the content was sold for 1 million $ and is now being removed into refineries
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Fig. 2: The most seriously polluted bay systems of Musallamiya and Daft on the Saudi-Arabian Gulf coast. Station numbers are indicated. The broken line indicates the approximate boundaries of the area to be restored and developed by the EC project [12, 13]
Fig. 3: Aerial photograph of an intertidal area at low tide between Stations 4 and S, taken from a helicopter on January 20, 1992
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5h
Fig. 4: A thin but stable cyanobacterial mat growing directly on oiled sediment. Removal of the mat means removal of a thin oilcontaining sediment layer. Photograph taken at Station 2-west on April 12, 1993
5r
5a
Fig. 5: A small pool at Station 3, reached by the tides only at extremely high floods. 5a: Picture taken on June 20, 1991.5b: On January 26, 1992, cyanobacterial mats are vasty growing on the oiled bottom of the pool. 5ci On April 12, 1993, cyanobacterial mats no longer dominate. Macrophytes are recovering, regeneration is in fiall progress
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Two Years of Oil Disaster in the Arabian Gulf 6a
6b
6e
Fig. 6: Western end of the polluted zone of the Sabkha at Station 4, about 1 km apart from the normal high-water line. The oil arrived from the left. 6a: June 22, 1991. The bright color of the unoiled right side is due to a sand-salt crust. 6b: January 26, 1992. In the more humid season the oiled sediment is covered by a beige-colored cyanobacterial mat which ends abrupdy with the end of the oiled zone. 6c: April 5, 1993. In the dry season cyanobacteria are absent and the situation is similar to that in 1991
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Zb
7a
7c Fig. 7: Station S, a uniformly polluted beach, about 300 m wide. 7a: On June 21, 1991.7b: On January 23, 1992, the oil solidified and is covered by a very thin sand layer; no substantial change. 7c: On April 8, 1993, the beach is "asphalted" and still devoid of any traces of higher life
Fig. 8: Cyanobacterial mats growing on low-lying oiled sediments of Station 5 which are frequently inundated by the tides. The mats and the polluted sediment layer are fractured. April 8, 1993
46
Fig. 9: The upper zone of Station 5, rarely reached by the tide water was plowed in spring 1992 to loosen the asphalt crust and to imitate the fracturing power of the cyanobacterial mats. April 8, 1993
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