roLlma
ofAdolescence
1990, 13, 1299142
Use of alcohol and drugs in the transitional phase from adolescence to young adulthood TORILD
HAMMER”
AND
PER
VAGLUM
The results are based on a prospective longitudinal national survey of 2000 young adults, 19-22 years old, who participated in a postal survey in 1985 and 1987; 68 per cent answered both questionnaires. This paper is mainly based on the cross-sectional analysis of the data from 1987. The transitional period from adolescence to young adulthood had a significant impact on both alcohol consumption and use of cannabis. There was a higher alcohol consumption among those who had left their parental home. The consumption was lower among those who had established an adult social role with a partner. This effect was more important than occupation, income and age. The transition from adolescence to young adulthood also implies a high risk of unemployment, since this period involves leaving school and establishing a work role. We found that unemployment was positively related to alcohol consumption and the use of cannabis among men; while among women there was a negative relationship, which was found to be insignificant. Previously unemployed women consumed less alcohol than other women in education or in paid work. This could not be explained by unemployed women working as housewives - a social role associated with a low consumption of alcohol. The significant interaction effect between unemployment and gender, with respect to alcohol consumption, could probably be explained by selection to unemployment.
INTRODUCTION
The transition period between adolescence and young adulthood is an interesting period for studying the use of alcohol and drugs. The changing life situation is characterized by events such as leaving home and establishment of family and working career, which will probably influence life-style and use of substances (Grant et al., 1988). Th‘ IS p eriod also involves a greater risk of unemployment. Previous research in Norway has concentrated on the youngest age group (15-19 years), while young adults are only represented in national surveys as a
*Reprint requests should be addressed to Torild Hammer, Medicine,
University
014%1971/90/020129
of Oslo, P.O.
+ 14 $03.00/O
Box 1111 Blindern, 0
1990 The
Department of Behavioural N-0317 Oslo 3, Norway.
Association
for the Psychiatric
Study
Sciences
of Adolescents
in
130
T.
HAMMER
AND
P. VAGLUM
rather small group (n = ZOO, Nordlund, 1987). Usually, this age group is studied as a whole, or compared with other, different age groups. We need more knowledge about how the drinking habits of young adults are related to different phases in the transition from adolescence, involving a departure from parents, to the establishment of an adult social role. Young adults between 19 to 22 years have the highest consumption of alcohol in the Norwegian population. There are fewer abstainers, a higher number of intoxications and a higher total consumption compared to the rest of the population (Norlund, 1987). The consumption of alcohol rises from 15 to about 20 years of age. Young adults seem to have more liberal attitudes towards alcohol, and they report more negative (and positive) consequences from drinking (Hauge et al., 1987). They also have a higher risk of accidents and injuries as a result of higher intoxication (Arner et al., 1985). In this age group alcohol consumption in the transitional years between adolescence and young adulthood has been described as a “rite de passage”, especially among young men. This transition period will probably involve several kinds of risk factors, affecting men and women differently. Unemployment may delay the transitional process from the role of a student to that of a worker. Unemployment has often been described as a risk factor, which leads to an increased probability of substance abuse. Research in this field is, however, ambiguous (Peck and Plant, 1986; Hammarstrom et aE., 1988; Kandel et al., 1986; Winton et al., 1986; Jyrkama, 1980). Some results indicate that unemployment is related to a decrease in the use of substances due to the economic situation, while others have found an increase in both consumption of alcohol and drug abuse. These contradictory results could be caused both by methodological and theoretical problems. Different groups may experience the consequences of unemployment in different ways, depending upon their life situation. In studies where factors such as financial situation, sex and alternative coping strategies to unemployment are not controlled, the results may show negative or positive effects or no effects at all (Hammer and Vaglum, 1988). Previous research has shown that the alcohol consumption in the total population varies according to socio-economic status, educational level, income, marital status and degree of urbanization (Arner et al., 198.5; Norlund, 1987). We do not know if the consumption of alcohol among young adults is influenced by the same factors in the same way as among the rest of the population. From a preventive perspective, greater knowledge about what kind of factors influence young peoples’ drinking behaviour and use of other substances is required. Against this background we will present cross-sectional data from a prospective, longitudinal study of a representative sample of young adults, in order to propose some answers to the following questions :
ADOLESCENT
USE OF ALCOHOL
AND DRUGS
131
- What
is the alcohol consumption in each age group and what is the relationship between use of alcohol and cannabis? - What is the relationship between different phases of the transition from adolescence to young adulthood and use of substances? - What is the relationship between unemployment and use of substances among young adults?
MATERIALS
AND METHOD
According to Kandel (1978), the ideal method design for studying the development of substance abuse is a longitudinal prospective research design, based on a representative sample displaying a high risk for developing substance abuse. Several Norwegian studies have documented that young adults who drop out of school, who are unemployed or who enter the labour market at a young age, have a higher consumption of both legal and illegal substances (Irgens Jensen and Rud, 1976; Arner et al., 1980; Hammer and Vaglum, 1988a,b). We h ave therefore, chosen a representative sample, stratified according to main activity. Every fifth year, the Central Bureau of Statistics in Norway carries out a national survey of young peoples’ adjustment to school and work. In the 1985 material covering the 17-20 year age group (n = .5689), we have extracted a sample (n = 1997) stratified according to their reported main occupation in 1985. Stratification was performed in such a manner that those not in education or without employment in 198.5 were selected with the highest probability of (1) (n = 394); the employed group with a probability of (0.70) (n = 800); while those in education were selected according to the lowest probability of (0.25) (n = 801). The data were analysed in each strata separately, controlling for the stratification variable. When the stratification variable had no significant impact, we presented the unweighted results (n = 1590) without the stratification variable. When the stratification variable had a significant impact or a significant interaction effect on the dependent variable, this was reported. The response rate from the 1985 survey was high (85 per cent). The attrition (15 per cent) was rather distorted in relation to the level of education: the higher the education the greater the likelihood of the questionnaire being answered, but this was partly compensated for by the addition of personal interviews (CBS, 1987). A postal survey was carried out among the sample by the Central Bureau of Statistics two years later, in the autumn of 1987. A sample of the nonrespondents were personally interviewed (n = 119). The total response rate was 80 per cent.
132
T. HAMMER
AND
P. VAGLUM
The non-respondents in 1987 did not differ significantly from the rest of the sample regarding the dependent variables, such as alcohol consumption, smoking, use of illegal substances and reported health problems. We cannot ignore the fact that the non-respondents in the 1985 survey could have been atypical in relation to substance use. However, the follow-up data in 1987 show that the interviews from the non-respondents in the 1985 survey did not differ significantly from the answers in the postal survey concerning the above mentioned variables. The non-respondents in the 1987 survey differed in relation to the main activity they had in 1985. Young adults not in education or employment in 1985 were, as expected, over represented amongst the attrition in 1987 (r = 0.13, p < 0.01). This represents a weakness of the survey which must be taken into consideration, especially with regard to generalization of the prevalence data. There is, however, no reason to believe that this sample is less representative than any other survey investigating substance use within the population. Sixty-eight per cent participated in both surveys. The entire sample from 1985 will be followed up again in 1989. This article uses data from the second survey (1987), but where relevant, data from the first survey (1985) are also cited. Since data on the use of substances are missing in the first survey the analysis is mainly cross-sectional.
Methods The 1985 and 1987 studies were primarily conducted as questionnaire surveys. The 1985 survey included questions about parents’ background, the young persons adaption to school, and work and health problems (approximately 100 questions). Additional questions in 1987 included conditions during upbringing, use of leisure time, psychic health and use of substances. A sample of those who did not answer the questionnaire were personally interviewed by telephone (n = 183, in 1985; n = 119 in 1987). In this article we have used the following measurements and indexes : _ All questions concerning education and work adaption are extracted from the 1985 Survey of Youth, designed in accordance with earlier surveys. _ Unemployment during the last two years is classified as the total number of months unemployed in this period. _ Social class is measured according to father’s occupation (Skrede’s index for classification of social groups, Skrede 1975). Where information concerning father’s occupation is absent, mother’s education is used instead. _ Alcohol consumption was measured according to the yearly total consumption of pure alcohol in 1987, based on information about the frequency of consumption during the last four weeks, as well as how much was consumed on the last drinking occasion. Type of drink was classified according to the
ADOLESCENT
USE OF ALCOHOL
AND DRUGS
133
standard used by The National Institute for Alcohol and Drug Research. Information was also collected on the frequency of drinking during the last year. Those who reported not drinking during the past four weeks, but who have reported alcohol consumption during the last year, were allotted a mean consumption based on reported frequency of drinking over the last year from that entire frequency group. Therefore, a person who reported drinking four times last year, but stated no consumption of alcohol over the past four weeks, was allotted the mean consumption rate for drinking four times last year (20 cl pure alcohol). Those who reported not drinking at all in the last year were classified as abstainers. - Cannabis use was measured by means of three questions relating to earlier use, debut age, and use during the previous year (frequency of use in 1987). - The transitional phase was a variable constructed on the basis of information about the young adults’ social roles in 1985 and 1987: departure from the parental home, and establishment of a relationship (either cohabitation or marriage). The variable then has three values: 1. living at home with parents; 2. moved away from parents and established alone; 3. moved away from parents and established with a partner.
Data analysis The analysis adopted both bivariate and multivariate techniques. This employed a statistical analysis based on testing of the chi-square, variance analysis and multiple classification analysis (MCA-analysis) using the SPSSX program (SPSS-X, 1988). Multiple classification analysis was used instead of multiple regression analysis because the study was dealing with several categorical independent variables. The interpretation of the results from the MCA-analysis is the same as using a linear regression analysis with dummy variables. The “eta” values being equal to a “multiple R” for each independent variable, and the “betacofficients” equal to the “beta-cofficients” in a regression analysis.
RESULTS
Alcolzol consumption
and use of cannabis
There are no significant differences between the reported alcohol consumption in this study and that stated in other studies of this age group in Norway (Guldbrandsen, 1988 ; Nordlund 1987). Consumption differs significantly according to sex. Men drink three times as much as women in the same age group. This is the case for all types of
T. HAMMER AND P. VAGLUM
134 Table
1.
Total consumption in pure alcohol (cl.) for each sex and age group (n = 1590) and,for cannabis users (n = 196)
Age of women, years
Age of men, years
19
20
21
22
19
20
21
22
Beer Wine Liquor
118 60 40
113 48 33
93 57 18
84 62 21
541 52 237
692 54 289
509 31 179
462 49 244
Total
224
200
174
172
804
1020
721
741
602
392
499
1821
1317
Used cannabis ever
alcohol Table
except
(n = 126)
(n = 70)
Total consumption
400
wine, where there is no significant
1 shows the mean consumption
and liquor
for each age group,
who have also used cannabis Twenty
and the total consumption separately
There
is a decreasing
For men there is an increasing
1794
in consumption.
last year in pure alcohol
year old men have a higher
age groups.
difference
1349
for wine, beer
of alcohol
for those
(n = 196). consumption
use among women
of alcohol
than all other
from 19 years upwards.
use up to 20 years with a period of stability
in
the early twenties. Those
who report
among men consumption the
alcohol
significant
cannabis
use have a much higher alcohol consumption and women (Y = 0.28 p < 0.001). The p < 0.001) from 19 years on among women, while among men
(r. = 0.23 decreases consumption
difference
cannabis-using
increases
in alcohol
at 22 years between
of age.
There
is no
the age groups among
young adults.
TRANSITIONAL We found no significant consumption
again
consumption
PHASE relationship
nor between
income
AND
USE OF SUBSTANCES
between
social background
and consumption.
This
and alcohol
is probably
be-
cause variation in income does not provide a clear picture of the financial situation. Many are still living with their parents and partly supported by them. Table 2 shows the relative influence of the transitional phase (leaving a parental home and establishing on their own) on the total alcohol consumption for men and women. Table 2 shows the deviance from the mean consumption of alcohol for each category
of the independent
variables,
and the changes
in deviance
when
ADOLESCENT
Table 2.
USE OF ALCOHOL
AND
DRUGS
135
MCA-analysis. The injluence of the transition period on alcohol consumption, controllingforgende~, age, residence and main activity Dependent
Independent variables
variable: Total consumption in cl. pure alcohol (n = 1526) (mean = 506.573)
Unadjusted deviance from mean
eta, r
Adjusted deviance from mean
295 -312
0.30
287 -307
0.05
17 94 -38 -42
0.08
-93 -120 -15 102 77
0.08s
0.08
-140 49 100 23
0.08”
Sex Men Women Age (years) 19 20 21 22
-8 102 -33 -35
beta, /I
@29”**
0.05 ns
Area -71 -134 -31 121 69
Western Norway Southern Norway The inlying counties The larger cities Northern Norway
:Wain actizlities -128 37 70 65
Education Employment Unemployment Others*
Transitional
phase
Single, live at home with parents
71
Single, moved away from home
133
-40 213 0.14
-204
Married, moved away from home
-118
0.13”s”
Slultiple R = 0.342, R’ = 0.117.
controlling for the other independent variables (adjusted deviance). According to Table 2, 19 to 20 year old employed men and women, living in the north of Norway or in parts of the Norway where the major cities are located (Oslo, Bergen and Trondheim), have the highest consumption of alcohol. Students
drink
less alcohol
in comparison
to those
in employment.
This
could
be
136
T.
HAMMER
AND
P. VAGLUM
explained by a higher income amongst those in employment. However, the unemployed group has a slightly higher consumption than those in employment. A separate analysis showed that unemployed women consume less alcohol, and women occupied as housewives drink less than all other women. According to Table 2 alcohol consumption is related to the different life situations young adults find themselves in, which correspond to the various transitional phases between adolescence and young adulthood with respect to marital status and family life. Living with parents is negatively related to alcohol consumption independent of age, sex and main activity/occupation. Those who are more established in a relationship or who have started a family, drink less alcohol. We have carried out the same kind of analysis with cannabis use as the dependent variable. We found no significant relationship between use of cannabis last year and social background, main activity or age when controlling for the stratification variable. The stratification variable had, however, a significant impact on cannabis use. Unemployment in 1985 was positively related to the use of cannabis last year (p
ofAdolescence
1990, 13, 1299142
Use of alcohol and drugs in the transitional phase from adolescence to young adulthood TORILD
HAMMER”
AND
PER
VAGLUM
The results are based on a prospective longitudinal national survey of 2000 young adults, 19-22 years old, who participated in a postal survey in 1985 and 1987; 68 per cent answered both questionnaires. This paper is mainly based on the cross-sectional analysis of the data from 1987. The transitional period from adolescence to young adulthood had a significant impact on both alcohol consumption and use of cannabis. There was a higher alcohol consumption among those who had left their parental home. The consumption was lower among those who had established an adult social role with a partner. This effect was more important than occupation, income and age. The transition from adolescence to young adulthood also implies a high risk of unemployment, since this period involves leaving school and establishing a work role. We found that unemployment was positively related to alcohol consumption and the use of cannabis among men; while among women there was a negative relationship, which was found to be insignificant. Previously unemployed women consumed less alcohol than other women in education or in paid work. This could not be explained by unemployed women working as housewives - a social role associated with a low consumption of alcohol. The significant interaction effect between unemployment and gender, with respect to alcohol consumption, could probably be explained by selection to unemployment.
INTRODUCTION
The transition period between adolescence and young adulthood is an interesting period for studying the use of alcohol and drugs. The changing life situation is characterized by events such as leaving home and establishment of family and working career, which will probably influence life-style and use of substances (Grant et al., 1988). Th‘ IS p eriod also involves a greater risk of unemployment. Previous research in Norway has concentrated on the youngest age group (15-19 years), while young adults are only represented in national surveys as a
*Reprint requests should be addressed to Torild Hammer, Medicine,
University
014%1971/90/020129
of Oslo, P.O.
+ 14 $03.00/O
Box 1111 Blindern, 0
1990 The
Department of Behavioural N-0317 Oslo 3, Norway.
Association
for the Psychiatric
Study
Sciences
of Adolescents
in
130
T.
HAMMER
AND
P. VAGLUM
rather small group (n = ZOO, Nordlund, 1987). Usually, this age group is studied as a whole, or compared with other, different age groups. We need more knowledge about how the drinking habits of young adults are related to different phases in the transition from adolescence, involving a departure from parents, to the establishment of an adult social role. Young adults between 19 to 22 years have the highest consumption of alcohol in the Norwegian population. There are fewer abstainers, a higher number of intoxications and a higher total consumption compared to the rest of the population (Norlund, 1987). The consumption of alcohol rises from 15 to about 20 years of age. Young adults seem to have more liberal attitudes towards alcohol, and they report more negative (and positive) consequences from drinking (Hauge et al., 1987). They also have a higher risk of accidents and injuries as a result of higher intoxication (Arner et al., 1985). In this age group alcohol consumption in the transitional years between adolescence and young adulthood has been described as a “rite de passage”, especially among young men. This transition period will probably involve several kinds of risk factors, affecting men and women differently. Unemployment may delay the transitional process from the role of a student to that of a worker. Unemployment has often been described as a risk factor, which leads to an increased probability of substance abuse. Research in this field is, however, ambiguous (Peck and Plant, 1986; Hammarstrom et aE., 1988; Kandel et al., 1986; Winton et al., 1986; Jyrkama, 1980). Some results indicate that unemployment is related to a decrease in the use of substances due to the economic situation, while others have found an increase in both consumption of alcohol and drug abuse. These contradictory results could be caused both by methodological and theoretical problems. Different groups may experience the consequences of unemployment in different ways, depending upon their life situation. In studies where factors such as financial situation, sex and alternative coping strategies to unemployment are not controlled, the results may show negative or positive effects or no effects at all (Hammer and Vaglum, 1988). Previous research has shown that the alcohol consumption in the total population varies according to socio-economic status, educational level, income, marital status and degree of urbanization (Arner et al., 198.5; Norlund, 1987). We do not know if the consumption of alcohol among young adults is influenced by the same factors in the same way as among the rest of the population. From a preventive perspective, greater knowledge about what kind of factors influence young peoples’ drinking behaviour and use of other substances is required. Against this background we will present cross-sectional data from a prospective, longitudinal study of a representative sample of young adults, in order to propose some answers to the following questions :
ADOLESCENT
USE OF ALCOHOL
AND DRUGS
131
- What
is the alcohol consumption in each age group and what is the relationship between use of alcohol and cannabis? - What is the relationship between different phases of the transition from adolescence to young adulthood and use of substances? - What is the relationship between unemployment and use of substances among young adults?
MATERIALS
AND METHOD
According to Kandel (1978), the ideal method design for studying the development of substance abuse is a longitudinal prospective research design, based on a representative sample displaying a high risk for developing substance abuse. Several Norwegian studies have documented that young adults who drop out of school, who are unemployed or who enter the labour market at a young age, have a higher consumption of both legal and illegal substances (Irgens Jensen and Rud, 1976; Arner et al., 1980; Hammer and Vaglum, 1988a,b). We h ave therefore, chosen a representative sample, stratified according to main activity. Every fifth year, the Central Bureau of Statistics in Norway carries out a national survey of young peoples’ adjustment to school and work. In the 1985 material covering the 17-20 year age group (n = .5689), we have extracted a sample (n = 1997) stratified according to their reported main occupation in 1985. Stratification was performed in such a manner that those not in education or without employment in 198.5 were selected with the highest probability of (1) (n = 394); the employed group with a probability of (0.70) (n = 800); while those in education were selected according to the lowest probability of (0.25) (n = 801). The data were analysed in each strata separately, controlling for the stratification variable. When the stratification variable had no significant impact, we presented the unweighted results (n = 1590) without the stratification variable. When the stratification variable had a significant impact or a significant interaction effect on the dependent variable, this was reported. The response rate from the 1985 survey was high (85 per cent). The attrition (15 per cent) was rather distorted in relation to the level of education: the higher the education the greater the likelihood of the questionnaire being answered, but this was partly compensated for by the addition of personal interviews (CBS, 1987). A postal survey was carried out among the sample by the Central Bureau of Statistics two years later, in the autumn of 1987. A sample of the nonrespondents were personally interviewed (n = 119). The total response rate was 80 per cent.
132
T. HAMMER
AND
P. VAGLUM
The non-respondents in 1987 did not differ significantly from the rest of the sample regarding the dependent variables, such as alcohol consumption, smoking, use of illegal substances and reported health problems. We cannot ignore the fact that the non-respondents in the 1985 survey could have been atypical in relation to substance use. However, the follow-up data in 1987 show that the interviews from the non-respondents in the 1985 survey did not differ significantly from the answers in the postal survey concerning the above mentioned variables. The non-respondents in the 1987 survey differed in relation to the main activity they had in 1985. Young adults not in education or employment in 1985 were, as expected, over represented amongst the attrition in 1987 (r = 0.13, p < 0.01). This represents a weakness of the survey which must be taken into consideration, especially with regard to generalization of the prevalence data. There is, however, no reason to believe that this sample is less representative than any other survey investigating substance use within the population. Sixty-eight per cent participated in both surveys. The entire sample from 1985 will be followed up again in 1989. This article uses data from the second survey (1987), but where relevant, data from the first survey (1985) are also cited. Since data on the use of substances are missing in the first survey the analysis is mainly cross-sectional.
Methods The 1985 and 1987 studies were primarily conducted as questionnaire surveys. The 1985 survey included questions about parents’ background, the young persons adaption to school, and work and health problems (approximately 100 questions). Additional questions in 1987 included conditions during upbringing, use of leisure time, psychic health and use of substances. A sample of those who did not answer the questionnaire were personally interviewed by telephone (n = 183, in 1985; n = 119 in 1987). In this article we have used the following measurements and indexes : _ All questions concerning education and work adaption are extracted from the 1985 Survey of Youth, designed in accordance with earlier surveys. _ Unemployment during the last two years is classified as the total number of months unemployed in this period. _ Social class is measured according to father’s occupation (Skrede’s index for classification of social groups, Skrede 1975). Where information concerning father’s occupation is absent, mother’s education is used instead. _ Alcohol consumption was measured according to the yearly total consumption of pure alcohol in 1987, based on information about the frequency of consumption during the last four weeks, as well as how much was consumed on the last drinking occasion. Type of drink was classified according to the
ADOLESCENT
USE OF ALCOHOL
AND DRUGS
133
standard used by The National Institute for Alcohol and Drug Research. Information was also collected on the frequency of drinking during the last year. Those who reported not drinking during the past four weeks, but who have reported alcohol consumption during the last year, were allotted a mean consumption based on reported frequency of drinking over the last year from that entire frequency group. Therefore, a person who reported drinking four times last year, but stated no consumption of alcohol over the past four weeks, was allotted the mean consumption rate for drinking four times last year (20 cl pure alcohol). Those who reported not drinking at all in the last year were classified as abstainers. - Cannabis use was measured by means of three questions relating to earlier use, debut age, and use during the previous year (frequency of use in 1987). - The transitional phase was a variable constructed on the basis of information about the young adults’ social roles in 1985 and 1987: departure from the parental home, and establishment of a relationship (either cohabitation or marriage). The variable then has three values: 1. living at home with parents; 2. moved away from parents and established alone; 3. moved away from parents and established with a partner.
Data analysis The analysis adopted both bivariate and multivariate techniques. This employed a statistical analysis based on testing of the chi-square, variance analysis and multiple classification analysis (MCA-analysis) using the SPSSX program (SPSS-X, 1988). Multiple classification analysis was used instead of multiple regression analysis because the study was dealing with several categorical independent variables. The interpretation of the results from the MCA-analysis is the same as using a linear regression analysis with dummy variables. The “eta” values being equal to a “multiple R” for each independent variable, and the “betacofficients” equal to the “beta-cofficients” in a regression analysis.
RESULTS
Alcolzol consumption
and use of cannabis
There are no significant differences between the reported alcohol consumption in this study and that stated in other studies of this age group in Norway (Guldbrandsen, 1988 ; Nordlund 1987). Consumption differs significantly according to sex. Men drink three times as much as women in the same age group. This is the case for all types of
T. HAMMER AND P. VAGLUM
134 Table
1.
Total consumption in pure alcohol (cl.) for each sex and age group (n = 1590) and,for cannabis users (n = 196)
Age of women, years
Age of men, years
19
20
21
22
19
20
21
22
Beer Wine Liquor
118 60 40
113 48 33
93 57 18
84 62 21
541 52 237
692 54 289
509 31 179
462 49 244
Total
224
200
174
172
804
1020
721
741
602
392
499
1821
1317
Used cannabis ever
alcohol Table
except
(n = 126)
(n = 70)
Total consumption
400
wine, where there is no significant
1 shows the mean consumption
and liquor
for each age group,
who have also used cannabis Twenty
and the total consumption separately
There
is a decreasing
For men there is an increasing
1794
in consumption.
last year in pure alcohol
year old men have a higher
age groups.
difference
1349
for wine, beer
of alcohol
for those
(n = 196). consumption
use among women
of alcohol
than all other
from 19 years upwards.
use up to 20 years with a period of stability
in
the early twenties. Those
who report
among men consumption the
alcohol
significant
cannabis
use have a much higher alcohol consumption and women (Y = 0.28 p < 0.001). The p < 0.001) from 19 years on among women, while among men
(r. = 0.23 decreases consumption
difference
cannabis-using
increases
in alcohol
at 22 years between
of age.
There
is no
the age groups among
young adults.
TRANSITIONAL We found no significant consumption
again
consumption
PHASE relationship
nor between
income
AND
USE OF SUBSTANCES
between
social background
and consumption.
This
and alcohol
is probably
be-
cause variation in income does not provide a clear picture of the financial situation. Many are still living with their parents and partly supported by them. Table 2 shows the relative influence of the transitional phase (leaving a parental home and establishing on their own) on the total alcohol consumption for men and women. Table 2 shows the deviance from the mean consumption of alcohol for each category
of the independent
variables,
and the changes
in deviance
when
ADOLESCENT
Table 2.
USE OF ALCOHOL
AND
DRUGS
135
MCA-analysis. The injluence of the transition period on alcohol consumption, controllingforgende~, age, residence and main activity Dependent
Independent variables
variable: Total consumption in cl. pure alcohol (n = 1526) (mean = 506.573)
Unadjusted deviance from mean
eta, r
Adjusted deviance from mean
295 -312
0.30
287 -307
0.05
17 94 -38 -42
0.08
-93 -120 -15 102 77
0.08s
0.08
-140 49 100 23
0.08”
Sex Men Women Age (years) 19 20 21 22
-8 102 -33 -35
beta, /I
@29”**
0.05 ns
Area -71 -134 -31 121 69
Western Norway Southern Norway The inlying counties The larger cities Northern Norway
:Wain actizlities -128 37 70 65
Education Employment Unemployment Others*
Transitional
phase
Single, live at home with parents
71
Single, moved away from home
133
-40 213 0.14
-204
Married, moved away from home
-118
0.13”s”
Slultiple R = 0.342, R’ = 0.117.
controlling for the other independent variables (adjusted deviance). According to Table 2, 19 to 20 year old employed men and women, living in the north of Norway or in parts of the Norway where the major cities are located (Oslo, Bergen and Trondheim), have the highest consumption of alcohol. Students
drink
less alcohol
in comparison
to those
in employment.
This
could
be
136
T.
HAMMER
AND
P. VAGLUM
explained by a higher income amongst those in employment. However, the unemployed group has a slightly higher consumption than those in employment. A separate analysis showed that unemployed women consume less alcohol, and women occupied as housewives drink less than all other women. According to Table 2 alcohol consumption is related to the different life situations young adults find themselves in, which correspond to the various transitional phases between adolescence and young adulthood with respect to marital status and family life. Living with parents is negatively related to alcohol consumption independent of age, sex and main activity/occupation. Those who are more established in a relationship or who have started a family, drink less alcohol. We have carried out the same kind of analysis with cannabis use as the dependent variable. We found no significant relationship between use of cannabis last year and social background, main activity or age when controlling for the stratification variable. The stratification variable had, however, a significant impact on cannabis use. Unemployment in 1985 was positively related to the use of cannabis last year (p
