Psychological Reports: Mental & Physical Health 2015, 116, 1, 127-148 © Psychological Reports 2015

USING KOLLAR'S SOLUTION-FOCUSED PASTORAL COUNSELING FOR BEREAVED CLIENTS: THE PROCESS OF EMPOWERMENT FROM CLIENTS' PERCEPTION1 PETER JEN DER PAN, F. LIANG-YU DENG, AND SHIO-LING TSAI Chung Yuan Christian University S. S. JENNY YUAN Department of Health, Taipei City Government Summary.—The purpose of this study was to investigate how bereaved clients recovered from grief and loss after receiving Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling (KSFPC) from a perspective of empowerment. Ten Taiwanese Christian clients (3 men, 7 women; M age = 42.5 yr., SD = 8.5), who had experienced a significant loss of a loved one within the past two years, were recruited from churches in northern Taiwan, forming a convenience sample. The clients, based on their time availability, were randomly assigned to one of the two pastoral counselors and had four KSFPC sessions. The grounded theory procedure was adopted for qualitative data analysis. Four prominent categories emerged from the open-ended questions, in-depth interviews, and interactive counseling notes, including First Encounter with Solution-focused Pastoral Counseling (SFPC), Transitional Life Re-DecisionMaking Process, Reflections and Changes, and New Participatory Competencies, within which 12 axial categories and 42 meaning units were identified. The results support the use of KSFPC to empower clients' competence in recovery from grief and loss. Implications for future research and KSFPC practice are suggested.

Grief and Death Grief reactions are pervasive in normal everyday life, and people experience grief through emotional, cognitive, physical, social, and religious responses in reaction to loss. Grief is a healthy, spontaneous, natural response, and it is also an unlearned, emotional healing process that occurs following a significant life change, such as the loss of a loved one, pet, job, marriage, or often, on retirement (Kübler-Ross, 1969; Kübler-Ross & Kessler, 2005). Kübler-Ross developed a five-stage model to describe the process of grief of death, comprising denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. It is a framework that develops as we learn to live without the one we loved (Kübler-Ross, 1969; Kübler-Ross & Kessler, 2005). There are specific types of responses, reactions, and adjustments that people go through in each stage. According to the model, these stages do not necesAddress correspondence to Peter Jen Der Pan, Center for General Education, College of Humanities and Education, Chung Yuan Christian University, 200 Chung Pei Road, Chung-Li, 32023 Taiwan or e-mail ([email protected]). 1

DOI 10.2466/02.PR0.116k10w1

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ISSN 0033-2941

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sarily come in order, nor are all stages experienced by all patients (KüblerRoss, 1969; Kübler-Ross & Kessler, 2005). Often, people will go “back and forth” between two or more stages, returning to one or more several times before working through it. Kübler-Ross and Kessler (2005) originally applied these stages to people who were suffering from terminal illness, but she later expanded the use of this theoretical model to include any form of catastrophic personal loss. Although the Kübler-Ross model is useful to identify and understand how people are dealing with the grief process, the five stages have been criticized as not adequately describing the wide range of emotions people experience during the changes related to loss (Fang & Nieh, 2006). It is likely that people from different cultures and backgrounds experience the same reactions and emotions. Cultural expectations and religious faith and practice may be powerful factors in these differences, so assessing the efficacy of therapeutic approaches within differing religious and ethnic groups (particularly non-Western groups) could assist in development of different approaches. Grief in a Complex Cultural and Religious Context Grief related to death is experienced uniquely by each person and in various forms by each culture. As an example, open and public discussions of death are culturally forbidden for Chinese people year round (Hsu, Kahn, Yee, & Lee, 2004), including mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. In the spring season of the Chinese Lunar New Year, mentioning the matter of dying is extremely prohibited as well as in the ghost month of July in the summer season, in the fall season of the moon festival, and in the winter season of blessing with firecrackers (Pan, Deng, Tsai, Chen, & Yuan, 2014). Therefore, the topic of death remains one of the greatest societal taboos and is associated with bad luck (Lee, 1997; Hsu, et al., 2004; Ho, 2007). In that context, little is known regarding how people recover from loss. Within the limited literature, Ho (2007) found that maintenance of “relationship” between Chinese parents and a deceased child was deeply affected by cultural beliefs and values. Ho further postulated that the use of object linking (such as pictures, puppets, and used goods), memorializing acts, and avoidance of a traditional funeral were frequently adopted to adjust to parents' sense of loss. Finally, Ho suggested that the use of the concept of fate or destiny assisted parents to accept the child's death and go through the grieving process more smoothly. Hsu, et al. (2004) indicated that traditional Chinese cultural concepts of continuity and wholeness (a central Chinese psychological goal) affect the adaptation of Taiwanese people to death-related loss. Hsu, et al. suggested that achieving a sense of reconnection with the deceased is a cul-

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turally specific and accepted form of resolving grief among the Taiwanese. They also identified that the Taiwanese concept of reconnection entails (a) maintaining the status quo, (b) restoring images of the deceased in family affairs, and (c) communicating with the dead. Each theme represents the efforts of the bereaved families to establish a relationship with the deceased to attain a sense of wholeness and to preserve symbolic features as representations of the dead (Hsu, et al., 2004). Although grief is highly individualized, there is a general consensus that grief is a dynamic process that requires time and effort for people to go through (Cowles & Rodgers, 1991; Cowles, 1996). Based on previous studies, recovering from grief and loss depends on past personal experience (Worden, 1995; 2009), cultural background (Cowles, 1996), support systems, relationship with the lost (Fang & Nieh, 2006), and also religious faith (Tan, 2007). For Chinese Christians, the issue of death and grief is the sharpest challenge to trust in God. If people are able to overcome the challenge in trust toward God, then faith can act as a buffer between death and grief (Chang, 2005). It is love that makes death bearable, because genuine love does not diminish under any circumstances even after death. Christian texts describe heaven as a gardenlike paradise where the spirits of the blessed or righteous go after death. It is the abode of God and the angels and is permeated by the divine spirit. These concepts powerfully impact Christian clients' responses to death and grief (Chang, 2005). Previous research (Tan, 2007; Pan, et al., 2014) has indicated that bereaved persons were helped by religion and spirituality-related variables to deal with the depression more effectively than those who were not spiritually oriented. Through Christian faith, bereaved clients hold the hope that death is not the end (Charles-Edwards, 2005). Faith allows people to readjust to the world without the deceased person and to create a context in which new friendships can be formed. To date, pastoral counseling represents an attempt to hold together both scientific and subjective accounts of human existence, and prior authors and researchers have suggested this will benefit counseling through a clinical, ethical, and professional use of spiritual resources (Richards & Bergin, 2005). Marrone (1997) suggested that in the process of dealing with profound loss in our lives, the ability to re-ascribe meaning to a changed world through spiritual transformation, religious conversion, or existential change may be more significant than the specific content in which that need is filled. Kollar's Solution-focused Pastoral Counseling The solution-focused approach is a method of therapy developed by Shazer and Berg in 1978 (Hsu, 2009). It differs from traditional counsel-

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ing approaches by eschewing the past and favoring both the present and the future (de Shazer, Dolan, Korman, Trepper, McCollum, & Berg, 2007). The therapist encourages the client to create a vision of reality in which he or she is able to function successfully, and unequivocally assures clients about their ability to overcome present problems and adversities (Sklare, 2005; Hsu, 2009). The philosophy of this approach assumes that concerns with unresolved past or present problems divert the people's focus from solutions leading to future recovery (Yeh, 2012). In fact, the solution-focused approach is grounded on the optimistic assumption that people are resilient, respectful, and competent and have the ability to construct solutions that can change their lives (Hsu, 2009). Previous research details the ways in which the solution-focused approach helps clients to deal with their problems by building a realistic future orientation. First, it emphasizes competence, strengths, and possibilities, rather than deficits, weaknesses, and limitations of the client (de Shazer, et al., 2007). The positive, strength-based perspective fosters a favorable self-perception of the client and thus builds a foundation for change. Second, the approach stresses focusing on the present, and discourages discussions of past events, problems, and feelings (Corcoran, 1997; Lange, 2001). Third, it uses scaling techniques to direct clients to evaluate actions that will lead to the change they desire (Corcoran, 1997; Franklin, Corcoran, Nowicki, & Streeter, 1997). Fourth, the technique of asking “exception questions” enables clients to think of times in their lives when they did not encounter the problems they are now dealing with (Lee, Sebold, & Uken, 2004; Frederick, 2008; Milner & Singleton, 2008). Finally, Hsu (2009) evaluated clinical sessions, and found that they possessed helpful events and techniques such as the exploration of clients' subjective explanations of their problems, projection of hopeful and preferred future prospects, transformation of coping difficulties into positive strengths, exploration and utilization of exceptions, establishment of small, concrete, and attainable counseling goals, and provision of positive feedback to clients. Guterman and Leite (2006) further proposed a useful pattern integrating religious and spiritual concerns and several techniques into four stages: (a) constructing a problem and a goal, (b) identifying and amplifying exceptions, (c) assigning tasks designed to identify and amplify exceptions, (d) evaluating the effectiveness of the tasks, and re-evaluating the problem and goal. Within this context, Kollar developed a program by incorporating solution-focused approach counseling and Christian faith to focus on where a person is going (vs. not leaving), and on what one could be doing right, rather than on what one is doing wrong (Kollar, 1997; Hsu, 2009). Kollar offered a workable program in which Christian faith and biblical theology are highlighted to be reasonable and effective

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(Kollar, 1997). The program assumes that the helper or pastor is not necessarily required to be a highly trained psychological expert, but it requires biblically-based sensitivity and basic counseling professions (Yeh, 2012). This principle alone typically offers a great sense of relief for those who feel inadequate to cope with the complexities of counseling. At the same time, relief is given to those who face complex life issues such as loss, separation, or disaster. Previous studies (Chen, 1998; Yeh, 2012) affirmed that Kollar's program was useful and effective for in-training and in-service pastoral counselors. Empowerment is defined as a process of increasing economic, political, social, educational, or spiritual strength, whereby individuals achieve increasing control of various aspects of their lives and participate in the community with dignity (Cornell Empowerment Group, 1989; Lord & Hutchison, 1993). Lord and Hutchison (1993) indicated some common underlying assumptions of empowerment: individuals are assumed to understand their own needs better than anyone else and therefore should have the power both to define and act upon them; all people possess strengths upon which they can build; empowerment is a lifelong endeavor; and personal knowledge and experience are valid and useful in coping with difficult situations effectively. Keiffer (1984) suggested a developmental process of empowerment, later revised by Yeh (2012), comprising four stages: (a) the entry stage, motivated by the client's experience of some events or conditions threatening to the self or family; (b) the advancement stage, three major aspects viewed as important to continue the empowerment process: a mentoring relationship, supportive peer relationships with a collective organization, and the development of a more critical understanding of social relations; (c) the third stage, which emphasized the development of a growing personal consciousness; and (d) the final state, focused on commitment where the clients apply the new participatory competence to expanding areas of their lives. The transition from impetus toward personal empowerment is an uniquely individual and ongoing process. Similarly, the transition to empowerment does not produce a fixed endpoint. Lord and Hutchison (1993) assured that people “became empowered” and never looked back because their impetus to empowerment was not a conscious decision. Instead, it is motivated by concrete factors such as being involved in a crisis or “life transition,” acting on anger or frustration, responding to new information, or building on inherent strengths and capabilities (Lord & Hutchison, 1993). Based on Yeh's revision (2012), empowerment is a control-enhancing process that promotes dealing with life events, as well as encouraging bereaved individuals to allow or encourage participation of other people and organizations to increase their own inner resources, sense of power,

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problem-solving efficacy, and quality of personal life. According to the concept of empowerment, there are several common ingredients that can be applied from the solution-focused approach counseling perspective. First, the approach, incorporating treatment goals and strategic planning interventions with positive thinking, seems to be particularly suitable for Chinese Christians dealing with grief. Second, religious coping has been utilized effectively to address a variety of painful life situations including stress, illness, victimization, and the loss of a loved one (Tan, 2007). Such positive coping consists of seeking spiritual support, collaborative religious coping, spiritual connection, and benevolent religious reappraisal (Pargament, Smith, Koenig, & Perez, 1998). Third, pastoral counseling, incorporating spiritual resources such as Scripture and prayer, is of therapeutic benefit and can contribute to believers' quality of life and to their perceptions of well-being (Pargament, et al., 1998; Chang, 2005; Tan, 2007). Therefore, the use of Kollar's program could effectively empower such clients to recover from grief and loss. Based on previous literature, the purpose of this study was to examine qualitatively how bereaved Chinese Christian clients recovered from grief and loss during solution-focused pastoral counseling from a perspective of empowerment. Toward this end, four aspects were examined: clients' perceptions of the characteristics of solution-focused approach counseling and their experiences of the transition from impetus to empowerment. Clients' religious and spiritual awakening in solution-focused approach counseling were examined in terms of how they benefited in coping with the loss of the deceased. Finally, positive changes and outcomes in individual inner resources, sense of power, problem-solving efficacy, or quality of personal life perceived by the clients were examined. METHOD Clients Based on the purpose of this study, an invitation letter indicating voluntary participation in this study was sent to 30 Christian churches in northern Taiwan, from which 20 church attendees responded to the primary researcher. Of the 20 respondents, 10 were recruited to participate in the study based on the following criteria: being a baptized Christian, having a significant loss of a loved one passing away within the last two years, expressing a personal need for counseling for grief reactions, and a willingness to complete the counseling sessions and notes. After signing a consent form, they voluntarily participated in this study. The clients were 30% men (n = 3) and 70% women (n = 7). The deceased persons were 5 fathers, 3 mothers, 1 daughter, and 1 younger brother. Their age ranged from 30 to

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55 years (M = 42.5 yr., SD = 8.5). The length of time following the significant loss ranged from 3 mo. to 24 mo. Pastoral Counselors Two master's-level Christian pastoral counselors, who were licensed clinical counselors, participated in this study. The clients, based on their time availability, were randomly assigned to one of the two pastoral counselors after the intake procedure and entered four solution-focused approach counseling sessions within two months. The counselors, one male and one female, had 400 hours of experience as school counselors in counseling centers as well as 200 hours of pastoral counseling within the church fellowship. Both of them received the research proposal, a package containing solution-focused approach counseling materials, and an overall framework for counseling guidelines prior to the beginning of the counseling sessions. To ensure that all grief interventions of the program would be conducted consistently, the counselors received 3 hours of preservice training to integrate their previous pastoral knowledge prior to the first counseling session and were also supervised weekly after each session. Group supervision was conducted by the primary researcher. In the qualitative approach to data analysis, the researcher has a strong role in data collection and analysis (Creswell, 2007). Qualitative research is interpretative, where the researchers' judgments, values, and biases should be clearly stated (Creswell, 2007). The primary researcher was one of the supervisors who served as a participating observer. He gathered information while being involved in the research field as well as in the focus group interview (a method of data collection to involve a small group of people who are interviewed on a subject of interest to the researcher).The other two researchers, Ph.D.-level senior counseling psychologists, were responsible for conducting data analysis. Because data are understood in the context of researchers' previous experiences (Creswell, 2007), the researchers consulted with experts and scholars to bracket their biases. Two research assistants, master's-level counseling psychologists, were responsible for conducting the in-depth interviews and transcribing data. Kollar's Solution-focused Pastoral Counseling Program Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling emphasizes to the client that God is already at work within the client's life (Chen, 1998; Yeh, 2012); thus, they have what is necessary to begin making progress regarding spiritual and emotional growth. In order to envision with the client a future that is not dominated by problems, and to chart a course in that direction, five solution-focused questions were incorporated in program (Kollar, 1997). These questions' effectiveness was supported within a counseling program by Berg and Miller (1992); questions include pretreatment/between-session change questions, exception questions, scaling questions, miracle questions,

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and relationship-oriented questions (Chen, 1998; Yeh, 2012). A description of the solution-focused pastoral counseling program is in the Appendix. Data Collection The grounded theory approach is qualitative in nature, interested in process and meaning rather than outcomes and products (Creswell, 2007). Grounded theory researchers use a set of procedures designed to give the analytic process precision, rigor, and creativity, with a commitment to focus on exploring and verifying concepts as they emerge through the interactive and systematic processes of data collection and analysis (Creswell, 2007). In this approach, researchers typically conduct interviews during several visits with a client to develop new research question and theory. In this study, data were collected from a focus group interview, counseling session notes, and answers of the open-ended questions from the in-depth interviews. The counseling session note, which consisted of weekly written input, is a useful reflection tool for clients to write down their on-going experience during counseling sessions. The note was used assuming that clients learn as they write. To consolidate the consistency and dependability of this study, focus group interviews were audiotaped and transcribed. The focus group interview was conducted two weeks after termination of the four counseling sessions, in which three questions were asked: (1) How do you perceive the solution-focused pastoral counseling, counselor, and counseling experience as a client? (2) Overall, what are your perceptions and experiences of your involvement in the counseling sessions? (3) How do you perceive the change before and after the counseling sessions? To describe clients' experiences of empowerment in counseling, openended questions were completed from the in-depth interviews after the 4 sessions had taken place and counseling was terminated. In order to examine clients' experiences of empowerment in the solution-focused pastoral counseling, three open-ended questions were framed: (1) In your counseling experience as a client, do you see any change of reactions to illness, death, and loss? (2) Based on your counseling perceptions, how do you see the inner resource, sense of control, and problem-solving efficacy that will benefit to your recovering from grief? (3) So far, how do you perceive your quality of personal life from the perspective of empowerment? Data Analysis In the data analysis, the grounded theory procedures were followed. First, all of the clients' responses were read to get a general sense of their perceptions. In this process, the two researchers each divided 10 transcripts into units that each contained one main idea (meaning units; Creswell, 2007). A two-line margin of error was adopted in utilizing the in-

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terview transcripts and defining the start and end of specific units. The agreement rate was .85 from the segmentations of 30 units from two randomly selected transcripts, demonstrating an acceptable level of consensus in identifying meaning units. Throughout this process of analysis, the researchers met regularly to discuss, review, and analyze data in terms of common reactions, concepts, and themes among all clients' responses to each question. The open coding was completed by separating, identifying, labeling, and categorizing data in terms of general themes. For example, a theme “feelings and reactions to the loss” was identified, then all information that related to this theme was put together into a single group named “involving in the counseling session.” Clients' responses were used to build properties and provide characteristics within this domain to help describe it. In axial coding, a process of disaggregation of core themes and a combination of inductive and deductive thinking was used to analyze data and highlight relations between categories and subcategories (Creswell, 2007). For example, those aspects were explored and coded that seemed to contribute to “First impression of counselors,” such as “empathetic understanding,” and “a warm, powerful, and mature Christian counselor.” In selective coding, all information obtained through previous data analyses was integrated and utilized to develop clearer and more abstract explanations and descriptions of emerging themes and related information. During the process, core categories were identified, existing concepts validated, and the properties and domains defining categories and concepts were refined. For example, those aspects that seemed to contribute to “The first encounter with solution-focused pastoral counseling” were explored, such as the “first impression of counselors,” “counseling themes in the solution-focused pastoral counseling,” and “initial counseling relationship.” The analysis procedures were stopped when redundancies and duplication of similar ideas, meanings, experiences, and descriptions occurred among clients and when no more new information was forthcoming (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Finally, four primary categories were constructed. The prolonged engagement and triangulation were used to enhance the validity of the research findings (Creswell, 2007). The prolonged engagement, which included the primary researcher's presence in a 30-min. group interview with the clients and the extensive interactions between the client, counselor, primary researcher, and others to ensure the credibility of findings, served as a form of clarification and verification. For triangulation, this study utilized multiple data sources, data collection techniques, and methods of analysis. Multiple data sources included the focus group interview (F-A-1), open-ended questions (O-A-1), and interactive counseling notes (I-A-1). The first letter of the alphabet in a pair of pa-

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rentheses indicates where the data come from, and the second letter of the alphabet reveals who the client is. The order of numbers identifies sequences of data resources and frequencies. Finally, peer debriefing was utilized. This refers to the process when the researchers consult with experts to discuss various aspects of the study, including the emerging categories, coding process, and any methodological concerns that may arise. RESULTS The qualitative data illuminated several concepts related to the empowerment of client recovery from grief and loss through Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling (Table 1). Data analyses yielded 42 meaning units or open codes, which were grouped to form 12 axial categories. As clients recovered from grief through the counseling, their reflections were examined. Four selective categories emerged as prominent and consistent: (a) the first encounter with Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling, (b) the transitional life decision-making process, (c) reflections and changes, and (d) new participatory competence. These categories are in accord with the stages of empowerment (Keiffer, 1984; Yeh, 2012) which reflect the clients' recovery from impetus to empowerment (Lord & Hutchison, 1993). Selective Category 1: First Encounter with Kollar's Solution-focused Pastoral Counseling The entry stage as defined by Keiffer (1984) and Yeh (2012) emphasizes that clients were suffering from grief reactions and seeking professional help through Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling. Clients described that their own involvement in the sessions were related to their loss of someone they loved. Three axial categories, including the first impression of counselors, counseling themes in the sessions, and the initial counseling relationship, composed this selective category of the first encounter with Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling. Several open codes contributed to the first axial category regarding the first impression of counselors. These themes seemed to reflect the counselor's helpfulness to clients in involvement in a workable counseling relationship. One client described, “My first impression of the counselor was that she was quite empathetic to my situation. I felt she was very structured, sincere, and efficient. She demonstrated her personal counseling style when she talked to me. She also gave me positive encouragement and affirmations in the critical period” (F-D-3). Another indicated, “My counselor was a warm, powerful, and mature Christian. I really enjoyed talking with her” (I-B-4). Data collection from the focus group interview indicated that the counseling themes included connection with the deceased, the end of their close relationship, and struggle with a sense of loss. One stressed,

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“The most troublesome issue to me is related to connection with my deceased Mom. However, the topic we talked about in the counseling sessions seemed to be changeable and flexible. We once talked about issues of interpersonal relationship, grief reactions, and personal concerns” (FA-2). Another indicated, “The sense of loss was the most important topic to me. The counselor took a lot of time to deal with my issue of end of the loss.” (F-E-4) Finally, several open codes were included in the axial category of the initial counseling relationship between clients and counselors. One described, “In the beginning of the first counseling session, I was a little anxious about self-disclosure. However, after a beginning prayer, I knew the counselor was trustworthy, sincere, and empathetic from the bottom of my heart in Christ” (F-C-3). Another stressed, “I hesitated about whether to keep going on talking about my sense of loss, because I was confused a little bit with my family doctrine and taboo… I overcame that sort of problem, because my counselor helped me to identify accurately my controversial problems and set up an attainable goal based on past successful experiences. He really inspired me” (F-I-2). Although the transition toward personal empowerment is a uniquely individual and ongoing process, the first encounter with Kollar's solutionfocused pastoral counseling seemed to be a turning point for change. Selective Category 2: Transitional Life Decision-making Process The advancement stage was identified when relationships were built and a supportive system was also developed based on Keiffer's (1984) assumptions. Those elements have been found in clients' responses signifying transition to the advancement stage. Three axial categories, including a reliable working relationship, their identification with the Christian faith, and positive aptitude to cope with grief, composed this selective category. First, several meaning units contributed to the axial category of a reliable working relationship. Clients revealed that their relationships with counselors were strengthened because of their counselors' successful empathetic understanding. One described, “It was like she was kind of… a warm angel sent by our Lord to help me spiritually. Therefore, I was encouraged to open my heart and to engage in a trip of recovering from loss” (F-H-2). Another indicated, “Although the gap might exist between my conscious and unconscious memory of the loss event, the focus on solutions attracted me. Therefore, it was definitely useful for improving our relationship” (F-A-2). Second, several meaning units were included in the axial category of identification in the Christian faith. Between sessions, most of the clients indicated that they were very actively engaged in their counseling process. They felt that pastoral counseling gave them new perspectives to see

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their problems spiritually and psychologically. One indicated, “Thinking about the counseling dialogues, reflecting what has happened in the counseling processes, and engaging in the counseling relationship was helpful and constructive. It was a special helping relationship which was built up based on the Christian faith and spiritual dialogues” (I-G-2). Another stressed, “After counseling termination, I found out I've changed my emotional reactions from passiveness and despair to positiveness and hope. One thing comes to my mind that although I am not perfect, I am unique in the name of Christ. It is meaningful to me” (I-E-3). Finally, several meaning units were included in the axial category of the positive aptitude to cope with grief. One described, “After the SFPC sessions, my recovering from grief and loss was becoming possible and accessible” (F-B-3). Another stressed, “I am induced to envision what I need to do to move up to a positive direction even with the fact of losing my mom. That is what I have learned from counseling sessions” (F-C-4). The other one stressed, “The uniqueness of the positive and future-oriented questioning was helpful to construct a concrete goal. This resulted in a better way to adjust my sense of loss” (F-B-8). Although Lord and Hutchison (1993) stressed that the impetus to empowerment is not a conscious decision, the findings did suggest that the clients entered the transitional life decision-making process by establishing a reliable working relationship, their identification with the Christian faith, and a positive aptitude for coping with grief. Selective Category 3: Transformations and Changes Based on Keiffer's (1984) and Yeh’s (2012) assumptions, the stage of growing personal consciousness is related to clients' deeper understanding of their personal concerns and situations through experiential learning and reflection. Three axial categories were identified to reflect this selective category: natural and neutral responses, spiritual reflections, and positive reflections to KSFPC. Several meaning units contributed to the axial category of the natural and neutral responses. One indicated, “What I am thinking about the loss of my father's death is that it is natural in nature, because all things come from God, including birth, old age, sickness, and death. Therefore, the expression of sadness and loss in the counseling process is also natural and neutral” (I-H-6). Another described, “Based on my perceptions, everything in this world eventually comes to an end. At times, it is natural to have grief and loss. Life ultimately does come to the end sometimes sooner than we expect. God has his timetable but our Lord has his grace and mercy to me” (O-A-6). Another one stressed, “Owing to the fact that Chinese people are not used to disclosing family affairs, I was confused and struggled for not having disclosed my feelings of mom's passing away for a long time. It is not a problem any longer” (I-B-6).

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Several meaning units were included in the second axial category of spiritual reflections. One indicated, “It has been two years since I made up my mind not to talk about mom's death at home, but now I strongly believe that God has an excellent plan for my mom. I am definitely sure that God is with my mom in heaven. I am totally relieved at this point of view” (I-D-3). Another described, “During the counseling process, my counselor aimed at my difficulty of separating from my deceased mom who had suffered from illness for a couple of years. My counselor helps me to figure out that [I had] a strict standard, the right from the wrong, the good from the bad, and the self-appraisal from the self-defeat in my life. After talking to my counselor, I finally realized that I have to stop my dichotomous thinking and I was free from a rigid, fixed, and arbitrary rule” (F-A-6). Finally, several meaning units were included in the third axial category of positive reflections to Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling. One indicated, “It is unbelievable how a useful technique such as the scaling questions can make even the most abstract goals concrete. With scaling questions, I can select a number that best represents my current grief situations. After that, I am induced to envision what I would need to do to move up on the scale. Scaling questions are meaningful and useful for me both psychologically and spiritually” (O-B-6). Another described, “During the process of counseling sessions, the focus of the solution-focused pastoral counseling is on taking actions rather than discussing causes and seeking excuses. This may be particularly well suited to meet the need of the bereaved family to a positive and possibility-oriented thinking” (O-C-6). A man indicated, “What I perceived in the counseling process is that my counselor led me in the optimistic problem-solving direction. In that sense, I am resilient, respectful, and competent. Then I have the ability to construct solutions for healthy grief reactions” (O-E-2). In sum, transformation and change resulted from natural and neutral responses, spiritual reflections, and positive reflections to Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling, which seemed to be able to build on inherent strengths and capabilities (Lord & Hutchison, 1993) for clients' empowerment. Selective Category 4: New Participatory Competencies The final stage, the commitment, is where clients can utilize new ideas, learning experiences, and new perceptions to expand areas of their lives through effectively using resources inside or outside. Three axial categories, religious and spiritual resources, reframing and enhancement, and commitment, were grouped together to represent this selective category. First, several open codes were categorized to the first axial category of the religious and spiritual resources, which reflect core values and the utility

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P. J. D. PAN, ET AL. TABLE 1 SELECTIVE, AXIAL, AND OPEN CATEGORIES FOR EMPOWERMENT OF SOLUTION-FOCUSED PASTORAL COUNSELING Selective

Axial

1. The first encoun- 1-1 First impression of ter with KSFPC counselors

Open 1-1-1 Quite empathetic understanding 1-1-2 A warm, powerful, and mature Christian counselor 1-1-3 Goal-oriented

1-2 Counseling themes 1-2-1 Connection with the deceased one 1-2-2 End of the close relationship 1-2-3 Struggling from sense of loss 1-3 Initial counseling relationship

2. Transitional life 2-1 A reliable working decision-making relationship process

1-3-1 Counselor was trustworthy, sincere, and empathetic 1-3-2 His leading me to face the grief and loss was really challenging me, and it worked 1-3-3 My counselor helped me to identify accurately my situations and set up an attainable goal based on past successful experiences 2-1-1 To help me spiritually 2-1-2 Positively leading me in the right way 2-1-3 The focus on solutions and future-oriented directions

2-2 Their identification 2-2-1 To see problems spiritually and psychoin the Christian faith logically 2-2-2 A special helping relationship which was built on the Christian faith and spiritual dialogues 2-2-3 I am unique in the name of Christ 2-3 Positive aptitude to 2-3-1 Change is becoming possible and accessible cope with grief 2-3-2 I am induced to envision what I need to do to move in a positive direction 2-3-3 The positive and future-oriented questions were helpful to construct a concrete goal of change 2-3-4 Purposely neglecting past experiences is advantageous in helping me to see things positively 3. Transformations 3-1 Natural and neutral 3-1-1 All things come from God, including and changes responses birth, old age, sickness, and death 3-1-2 To indulge in grief reactions is not necessary 3-1-3 Cultural myth 3-1-4 God's characteristics 3-2 Spiritual reflections 3-2-1 I am totally relieved 3-2-2 I was free from a rigid, fixed, and arbitrary rule based on Christian faith 3-2-3 Dialogues with the God 3-2-4 God's time table 3-3 Positive reflections 3-3-1 Useful and effective techniques to solution-focused 3-3-2 The focus of solution-focused pastoral pastoral counseling counseling is on taking actions 3-3-3 An empty chair prayer 3-3-4 My counselor led me to engage in optimistic problem-solving (continued on next page)

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TABLE 1 (CONT’D) SELECTIVE, AXIAL, AND OPEN CATEGORIES FOR EMPOWERMENT OF SOLUTION-FOCUSED PASTORAL COUNSELING Selective 4. New participatory competencies

Axial

Open

4-1 Religious and spiritual resources

4-1-1 Peace be with you 4-1-2 A trustworthy relationship with dad 4-1-3 God's words will lead my way 4-1-4 Expect to read the Scripture and to pray at the end of each session

4-2 Reframing and enhancement

4-2-1 Having new perspectives 4-2-2 Being in the re-decision-making process 4-2-3 Enhancement of self-value

4-3 Commitments

4-3-1 Attending church congregation 4-3-2 Reliable trustworthiness 4-3-3 Stop being self-defeating 4-3-4 Family reunion

of these resources in these Chinese Christians' daily life. One described, “Since my mom passed away, I have prayed every night with sadness and grief. However, God's words, 'Peace be with you' frequently healed my heart. I was completely conquered by the Spirit. My counselor encouraged me to live without depending on anyone else but Jesus Christ” (FA-7). Another described, “In the period of struggling with grief reactions, I made up my mind to trust in the Lord, and to rebuild a trustworthy relationship with God. Because I definitely understood that my dad is living with our God right now, I am free from the sense of loss after counseling termination.” (O-H-6). Another one stressed, “I was so happy to have spiritual dialogues with my counselor. Those are meaningful to me and become parts of my Christian life. I would keep reading the Scripture day by day. God's words will lead my way” (I-B-5). Second, several meaning units were included in the axial category of reframing and enhancement. Clients' perceptions of this theme were related to having new perspectives, being in the re-decision-making process, and enhancing self-value. One stressed, “After the counseling sessions terminated, I have a sense of refreshing feeling. The priority of my personal life has been changed. It seems like I have found my purposes of life again. I no longer live up to my family members' expectations. Instead, I live up to my own expectations” (I-B-6). Another described, “I was convinced that to live for today is not a bad thing. At least, it is better than to live for yesterday. For me, I would rather to live for tomorrow with hope” (C-I-5). Another stressed, “My dad's leaving was not a problem anymore. I knew that I have to learn how to forgive and then to peacefully get along with my dad's passing away in Christ” (I-A-3). Finally, several meaning units were included in the axial category of commitments, including attending church, reliable trustworthiness, stop

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being self-defeating, and family reunion. One stressed, “I already knew that going to church is a visible, tangible expression of our love and worship toward God, but I just couldn't get together with other believers since my mom's death. However, it is where I can bring His offerings of praise, thanks, and honor to brothers and sisters in Christ” (O-G-8). Another described, “Trustworthiness is important because people have to believe in one another to be able to trust each other with certain tasks. It has been a long time since a reliable relationship disappeared from me. Nobody I see can be trusted, but now I can see things from positive perspectives” (O-C-8). Another response was, “There's a pain going on and on after my dad's passing away. There were empty chairs at empty tables at home. I once tried to avoid being with relatives, staying at home instead. I know to plan for a family reunion is a huge task, but now I can do it in the near future” (I-H-5). DISCUSSION The foremost goal of this study was to investigate bereaved clients' perceptions of the positive changes and outcomes after they received Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling from a perspective of empowerment. The empowerment in KSFPC for issues of grief and loss has not been assessed in previous literature. However, previous studies have affirmed that this counseling was effective for pastoral counselors' professional development (Chen, 1998; Yeh, 2012). Participants in the current study found KSFPC to be useful and effective, focused on taking actions, and that it led to the bereaved client's experience of empowerment. This is consistent with previous findings that clients have positive reflections on KSFPC during the counseling sessions and after termination (Yeh, 2012). What clients perceived in the first encounter with KSFPC was a positive, helpful, and constructive experience. It is apparent that the more clients had positive responses to their counselor, the more they enjoyed the initial counseling relationship. In fact, they mentioned positive impressions of their counselors, attending more to counseling themes of grief and loss, and having a workable counseling relationship with counselors than any other aspect. Thus, the process of the first encounter in KSFPC seemed to mainly reflect its characteristics of a goal-oriented leading style, empathetic understanding, and working alliance, as reported in the literature (Chen, 1998; Yeh, 2012). Clients also further reflected that they experienced a reliable working relationship, strengthening of their identification with the Christian faith, and positive aptitudes for coping with grief. These experiences are helpful for clients' transitional life decision-making process in coping with grief and loss. In fact, the process seemed an ideal solution-focused pastoral counseling for Chinese Christians: it should incorporate spiritual

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resources in the whole counseling process to strengthen a working relationship based on the Christian faith and spiritual dialogues, to plan and direct toward a positive future, and to share feelings freely about spiritual experiences (Chen, 1998; Tan, 2007; Yeh, 2012). The effects of the transitional life decision-making process, then, were quite salutary for the clients themselves, but recovering from grief and loss is especially a real and vital experience from the Christian perspective. More importantly, the transitional life decision-making process is a turning point of change as clients develop empowerment through counseling. The transformations and changes of the clients' natural and neutral responses, spiritual reflections, and positive reflections to SFPC were related to assumptions of Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling about the clients' religious and spiritual awakening. While clients described their grief and loss as natural and neutral responses, their self-disclosure became easy and open. In fact, the more clients reacted positively to this type of counseling, the more they were willing to discuss their problems. Similarly, the more clients used the spiritual resources offered, the more easily a positive change may occur. Based on the research findings, the clients' recovery from grief and loss and willingness to change resulted from the essential elements of the connection with the deceased, the identification of God's timing, relief from rigid, fixed, and arbitrary rules or outlooks, the reconnection with God, and the use of spiritual resources such as reading, prayer, and fellowship. Given the clear distinction in the clients' positive reflections to Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling, it would appear that the use of effective techniques leads to optimistic problem-solving. Based on the findings, Chinese Christian clients who are suffering from grief and loss may benefit greatly from spiritual resources offered alongside psychological support from a counselor. All of the themes indicate a process of transformation and change within a religious and spiritual awakening in coping with a loss. These changes include an increasing control of various life aspects and the development of empowerment (Tan, 2007; Yeh, 2012). New participatory competencies, reflected in the themes of using religious and spiritual resources, reframing and enhancement, and commitments, offer promising evidence for enriching the development of empowerment. Pargament, et al. (1998) indicated that the seeking of spiritual support, collaborative religious coping, spiritual connection, and benevolent religious reappraisal are essential for religiously-oriented clients coping with the loss of a loved one. For Chinese Christians in particular, it is meaningful and valuable to associate these resources with personal control to strengthen the process of change (Cornell Empowerment Group, 1989). Reframing and enhancement do not change the loss, but clients reascribe meaning to a changed world through spiritual transformation or

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existential change, resulting in powerful effects on the sense of grief and loss (Marrone, 1997) and inducing a hopeful outlook productive to coping and/or empowerment. The findings are consistent with Yeh's (2012) suggestions that empowerment enhances the client's sense of control, better coping with life events, and more participation with people and communities to increase the client's inner resources, sense of power, problemsolving efficacy, and quality of personal life (Yeh, 2012). Commitment is a promise to do something or to behave in a particular way. Based on the clients' responses, commitment was incorporated into their use of spiritual resources such as Scripture, prayer, church fellowship, and family reunion. These have therapeutic benefits and can contribute to a believer's quality of life and perceptions of well-being (Pargament, et al., 1998; Tan, 2007). The related decision-making mainly reflects a client's promise to allow himself to readjust to a world without the deceased person, and to create a context in which new relationships can be formed. The commitment is the final but vital stage, in which the clients apply the new participatory competence to expanding areas of their lives. Although grief is experienced uniquely by each person, empowerment through Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling seems to provide a new way to support clients' recovery from grief and loss without using object linking, memorializing acts, or traditional funeral processes (Ho, 2007). Chinese Christians can both hold the hope that death is not the end (Charles-Edwards, 2005) and retain a sense of wholeness with the deceased person (Hsu, et al., 2004). Recovering from a sense of grief and loss seems more accessible than expected. Instead of revisiting stages, Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling creates an access for clients to go through the stages smoothly. One female client reflected on her mother's passing by saying, “As backwards as it may seem, I am very thankful for the journey I was on with my mom. Behind the weakness, confusion, and utter helplessness is a beautiful soul who loved us and was totally devoted to raise me. I am experiencing so much about what real grief is, and even though I wouldn't have asked for this journey with mom with tears and heart-ache, I wouldn't trade it for anything else after seeking for help with a counselor in the KSFPC sessions. I jump out from a swamp bottom in a short period of time because now I know real love is not always easy or convenient.” This description was typical of these clients not needing to return to one or more stages several times, but to be able to resolve their grief by empowerment to talk about the greatest societal taboo in their culture (Lee, 2002; Ho, 2007). Based on clients' responses, the characteristics of Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling resulted in a transitional life decision-making process which was beneficial to the development of empowerment. This

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current study further illuminates that for Christians, and particularly for Chinese clients, religious and spiritual awakening is perceived as a resource for coping through a new participatory competence that provided opportunity for change. Although Christian faith assists people to readjust to the world without the deceased person, with the hope that death is not the end (Charles-Edwards, 2005), there may be an issue with some Christians rejecting either traditional ways of grieving or the use of KSFPC. Hence, every reasonable effort should be made to arrange for the continuation of treatment with another professional if necessary. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research The convenience sample of only ten clients recruited from Christian churches in Taiwan clearly does not reflect geographically diverse locations of the wider population. A more representative sampling method including clients in northern, central, and southern regions of Taiwan, as well as in other Chinese communities like Hong Kong, Macau, or mainland China, could greatly increase sample diversity and representation. Second, the voluntary nature of including only those clients who have strong needs for help may also have limited the representativeness of the sample. Retrospective self-reports may result in forgetting or inaccurately remembering important aspects or nuances of particular experiences. Preexisting beliefs and self-presentation style may bias clients' reports and personal perceptions. In future research, a quantitative assessment of Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling is needed. Finally, although the experience of empowerment is being understood as a process to enhance the sense of control, it is still somewhat abstract in nature. The development and validation of a grief-and-loss empowerment scale is definitely needed in further research. Implications for Counseling Practice The results of this study suggest important implications for pastoral counseling practitioners. First, it is strongly suggested that Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling program should be included in the inservice training provided by seminaries to those who will help bereaved clients to cope with grief and loss. Although solution-focused pastoral counseling is not a relationship-oriented approach, it is strongly suggested that pastoral counselors make an effort to build a reliable and constructive working alliance with their clients. For both Christian clients and counselors, the importance of building a working alliance is a vital intervention through empathetic understanding. For pastoral counselors working with Christian clients, it is advisable to suggest and use familiar relational and spiritual resources to develop empowerment during the transitional time. Finally, counseling scholars and practitioners should sensitively consider

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Christian clients' religious identity and spiritual concerns, and increase multicultural counseling knowledge, skills, and awareness (MagaldiDopman, Park-Taylor, & Ponterotto, 2011). This study strongly suggests that clients' empowerment in recovery from grief and loss through Kollar's solution-focused pastoral counseling is transparent and attainable for pastoral counselors. In this vein, other cultures and religious clients with similar rigidity of social traditions and taboos might benefit from variations of the solution-focused methods. REFERENCES

BERG, I. K., & MILLER, S. D. (1992) Working with the problem drinker: a solution-focused approach. New York: Norton. CHANG, T. C. (2005) Pastoral counseling: a helping model for changing life. Taipei, Taiwan: China Evangelical Seminary. CHARLES-EDWARDS, D. (2005) Handling death and bereavement at work. New York: Routledge. CHEN, P. H. (1998) Solution-focused brief counseling. Taipei, Taiwan: Teacher Chang Press. CORCORAN, J. (1997) A solution-oriented approach to working with juvenile offenders. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 14, 277-288. CORNELL EMPOWERMENT GROUP. (1989) Empowerment and family support. Networking Bulletin, 1, 2. COWLES, K. V. (1996) Cultural perspectives of grief: an expanded concept analysis. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 23, 287-294. COWLES, K. V., & RODGERS, B. L. (1991) The concept of grief: a foundation for nursing research and practice. Research in Nursing & Health, 14, 119-127. CRESWELL, J. W. (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. (3rd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. DE SHAZER, S., DOLAN, Y., KORMAN, H., TREPPER, T., MCCOLLUM, E., & BERG, I. K. (2007) More than miracles: the state of the art solution-focused brief therapy. New York: Haworth. FANG, T. W., & NIEH, H. W. (2006) The correlative study of grief misconception, coping behaviors and recovery degree of undergraduate students with losses in their lives. Paper presented at the 2006 International Annual Convention of Taiwan Guidance and Counseling Association, Taipei Municipal Univer. of Education, Taipei, Taiwan, October 21. FRANKLIN, C., CORCORAN, J., NOWICKI, J., & STREETER, C. L. (1997) Using client self-anchored scales to measure outcomes in solution-focused therapy. Journal of Systemic Therapies, 10, 246-265. FREDERICK, T. V. (2008) Solution-focused brief therapy and the kingdom of God: a cosmological integration. Pastoral Psychology, 56, 413-419. GUTERMAN, J. T., & LEITE, N. (2006) Solution-focused counseling for clients with religious and spiritual concerns. Counseling and Values, 51, 39-52. HO, S-W. (2007) Cultural influences on parental bereavement in Chinese families. Journal of Death and Dying, 55, 1-25. HSU, M. T., KAHN, D. L., YEE, D. H., & LEE, W. L. (2004) Recovery through reconnection: a cultural design for family bereavement in Taiwan. Death Studies, 28, 761-786.

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HSU, W-S. (2009) High helpful significant events and related techniques in SolutionFocused Brief Therapy: an exploratory study. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 41, 271-294. KEIFFER, C. (1984) Citizen empowerment: a developmental perspective. Prevention in Human Services, 3, 9-35. KOLLAR, C. A. (1997) Solution-focused pastoral counseling. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. KÜBLER-ROSS, E. (1969) On death and dying. New York: Tavistack/Routledge. KÜBLER-ROSS, E., & KESSLER, D. (2005) On grief and grieving: finding the meaning of grief through the five stages of loss. New York: Simon & Schuster. LANGE, S. M. (2001) Solution-focused group psychotherapy for incarcerated fathers. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 12, 1-20. LEE, M. Y. (1997) A study of solution-focused brief family therapy: outcome and issues. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 25, 3-17. LEE, M. Y., SEBOLD, J., & UKEN, A. (2004) Solution-focused treatment of domestic violence offenders: accountability for change. Families in Society, 85, 463-476. LORD, J., & HUTCHISON, P. (1993) The process of empowerment: implications for theory and practice. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 12, 2-10. MAGALDI-DOPMAN, D., PARK-TAYLOR, J., & PONTEROTTO, J. G. (2011) Psychotherapists' spiritual, religious, atheist or agnostic identity and their practice of psychotherapy: a grounded theory study. Psychotherapy Research, 21, 286-303. MARRONE, R. (1997) Dying, mourning, and spirituality: a psychological perspective. Death Studies, 23, 495-519. MILNER, J., & SINGLETON, T. B. (2008) Domestic violence: solution-focused practice with men and women who are violent. Journal of Family Therapy, 30, 29-53. PAN, P. J. D., DENG, L. Y. F., TSAI, S. L., CHEN, H. Y. J., & YUAN, S. S. J. (2014) Development and validation of a Christian-based grief recovery scale. British Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 42, 99-114. PARGAMENT, K. I., SMITH, B. W., KOENIG, H. G., & PEREZ, L. (1998) Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 710-724. RICHARDS, P. S., & BERGIN, A. E. (2005) A spiritual strategy for counseling and psychotherapy. (2nd ed.) Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. SKLARE, G. B. (2005) Brief counseling that works: a solution-focused approach for school counselors and administrators. (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. STRAUSS, A., & CORBIN J. (1998) Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. (2nd ed.) London, UK: Sage. TAN, S. Y. (2007) Use of prayer and scripture in cognitive-behavioral therapy. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 26, 101-111. WORDEN, J. W. (1995) Grief counseling and grief therapy: a handbook for the mental health practitioner. (2nd ed.) London, UK: Routledge. WORDEN, J. W. (2009) Grief counseling and grief therapy: a handbook for the mental health practitioner. (4th ed.) New York: Springer. YEH, E. H. (2012) Solution-focused pastoral counseling. Taipei, Taiwan: Cosmic Light Holistic Care. Accepted November 13, 2014.

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P. J. D. PAN, ET AL. APPENDIX THE PROGRAM: KOLLAR’S SOLUTION-FOCUSED PASTORAL COUNSELING

Basic Assumptions

Main Concepts

Related Techniques

God is already active There are capabilities within the client alin the client ready revealed in his past that will help him effectively manage a specific problem.

Pretreatment/ between-session change questions

Complex problems The problem does not need to be clearly do not demand defined for effective counseling to take complex solutions place.

Goal setting

Finding exceptions helps create solutions

Exceptions to every problem can be developed by the counselor and client, and these are indications of the inner capabilities of the client.

Exception questions

The client is always changing

Change in our lives is a constant occurrence. The counselor conducts the session expecting change to occur and focusing on change talk. Small change often leads to bigger change.

Exception questions

The client is the expert and defines goals

When the client chooses the goal and works on it together with the counselor, he is more likely to succeed.

Scaling questions

Solutions are cocreated

As pastoral counselors, our task is to coException questions create with the client a reality in which Relationshipthere is an opportunity for positive oriented questions change. We work through what God has already been doing and seek to move the client forward in his goals.

The client is not the Problems occur in the setting of human in- Exception questions problem; the probteraction and, usually, just happen. It is Relationshiplem is more helpful to consider what gets in oriented questions the way of finding or noticing solutions than what causes the problem. The counseling relationship is positional

Solution-focused Pastoral Counseling seeks Scaling questions to discover ways that every client who Relationship-orican become a willing participant in the ented questions process. This is accomplished by coming alongside the client's goals, at whatever level of cooperation he may be able to offer initially.

The counselor's focus Basic guidelines for staying solutionScaling questions is on solutions focused in counseling are these: If it's not Relationshipbroken, don't fix it; once you know what oriented questions works, do more of it; and if it doesn't work, don't do it again—do something different.

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