Psychological Reports, 1979, 45, 356-358. @ Psychological Reports 1979
VIOLENT BEHAVIOR A N D DIFFERENTIAL WAIS CHARACTERISTICS AMONG BLACK PRISON INMATES1 FRANK T. LIRA
THOMAS J. FAGAN
Petersbrcrg Psychiatric Institute Petersburg, Virginia
U. S. Department of Justice Federal Correctional Institution Pete~sburg, Virginia
MICHAEL J. WHITE Ball State University Summary.-WAIS data were collected from 51 black incarcerated youthful offenders assigned to three groups on the basis of severity of crimes. Similarities ratios were significantly lower for non-violent offenders than violent and moderately violent offenders, the reverse of results reported by others for white and mixed racial samples. Pitfalls of using the Similarities ratio as a clinical diagnostic measure without normative data are discussed.
Two studies have recently reported that violent, incarcerated offenders may be distinguished from non-violent offenders based upon scores obtained on the Similarities subcest of Wechsler intelligence scales. In the first study (Kunce, Ryan, & Eckelman, 1976), white offenders confined within the maximum security forensic unit of a state hospital and categorized as violent, i.e., murderers, rapists, and kidnappers, obtained significantly lower Similarities scores on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) than non-violent offenders, i.e., thieves, drug violators, forgers, and burglars. Hays and Solway ( 1977), in a second study, found a corresponding relationship, but with higher mean scores, on the Similarities subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children when they tested a racially mixed group of violent and non-violent juvenile delinquents. Due to either restrictions or ambiguities in the sampling procedures used by these authors, the racial generalizability of these findings must be considered problematic. Kunce, et al. (1976) chose to restrict their sample to white, male offenders due to the doubtful validity of WAIS test scores with non-white respondents. Hays and Solway ( 1977) did not attempt to control for race or sex in their study. Both sex and, it is assumed, various races were included in their "mixed" sample in unspecified ratios. Information describing the Similarities ratio/violence relationship among minority group inmates currently does not exist. The history of intelligence and personality test evaluation (Block & Dworkin, 1976) would suggest that with'The authors would like to express their appreciation to the administration of the Federal Correctional Institution. Petersburg, Virginia for allowing these data to be collected within their facility and to ~ i n d a~ a r v a n i kfo;her assistance i n preparing this manuscript. The views presented are solely those of the authors and are neither endorsed nor disclaimed by the U. S. Bureau of Prisons. Requests for reprints should be addressed to F. T. Lira, 36 Filmore St., Petersburg Psychiatric Institute, Petersburg, VA 23803.
PRISONERS' WAIS SCORES A N D VIOLENCE
357
out such specific information the likelihood of interpretive error with deleterious consequences to minority groups is extremely high. The impact of such errors is particularly acute among institutionalized and incarcerated populations. And when the relative over-representation of minority groups in prison is considered the need for appropriate data becomes even more pressing. TO provide some of this needed information, the present study investigated this relationship in a black population of violent, moderately violent, and non-violent young adult offenders confined within a medium security federal correctional institution. WAIS data were collected from 51 black, youthful offenders. Seventeen of these offenders had been cornmitred for violenc crimes against a person including murder, rape, kidnapping, and assault ( M age = 21.1 yr.; M IQ = 89.3). The mean Similarities ratio for this group was 10.54 ( S D = 1.68). A second group of 17 inmates had been convicted of moderately violent crimes such as armed robbery in which the potential for violence existed, but where no actual physical contact or harm was reported. This group had a mean age of 21.5 yr., a mean IQ of 95.4, and a mean Similarities ratio of 10.25 (SD= 1.31). A third group ( n = 17) had been committed for non-violent crimes such as narcotics violations, forgery, mail theft, and motor vehicle violations. This group had a mean age of 22.9 yr., a mean IQ of 90.8, and a mean Similarities ratio of 9.00 ( S D = 1.81). Results indicated that non-violent offenders obtained significantly lower Similarities ratios than both violent ( I = 2.48, p < .02) and moderately violent offenders ( t = 2.23, p < .05). This pattern of Similarities ratios is the r.everJe of that reported by both Kunce, et al. (1976) and Hays and Solway (1977). Two explanations of these findings are offered. First, and perhaps more tenable, is that the validity of the Similarities ratio as a diagnostic index of violent behavior among black offenders must be questioned. An extensive literature exists documenting the general cultural biases inherent in the WAIS and other, similar instruments (Block & Dworkin, 1976; Kamin, 1976; Mischel, 1976). In the absence of data to the contrary, the discrepancies between patterns of Similarities ratios previously reported among whites (Hays & Solway, 1977; Kunce, et al., 1976) and those obtained among blacks in the present study would seem best explained as a part of this larger problem in psychometric cultural bias. W'AIS Similarities ratios may not reflect the same processes for blacks as whites, may measure them unreliably, or the relation of cognitive processes measured by the Similarities subtest with violence may be entirely different for blacks and for whites. Results may also be viewed from a second, more speculative perspective. Poor impulse control and a general inability to conceptualize behavioral alternatives were cited as reasons for the lower Similarities ratios reported among vio-
358
F.
T. LIRA, ET AL.
lent, white offenders (Kunce, et al., 1976). It is highly unlikely these explanations hold for the violent, black offender. In the present sample, violent, black offenders obtained the highest Similarities ratios of all three groups. If the same interpretative criteria for blacks as whites are admitted, this would suggest both good impulse control and an ability to conceptualize behavioral alternatives. It is possible that within the black, inner-city, ghetto population which the present sample represented, subcultural norms, limited perceived alternatives for violence, and aggressive role models facilitate aggressive behavior as the preferred alternative in a broad range of situations. Significant differences were not found between the violent and moderately violent groups tested in this study. Further research utilizing a broader sample of minority groups, sexes, and urban/rural residence is needed to determine if this finding is the result of the arbitrary definitions used to differentiate between violent and moderately violent offenders in the present study or the result of the Similarities ratio's inability to discriminate between varying degrees of violence. While further research is clearly needed, non-experimental, clinical use of the Similarities ratio to assess potential for violence among blacks is unwarranted. Given the consequences of a "false positive" categorization for violence, particularly within a forensic setting, and the current limitations of research on this index, its applied use is not presently justifiable. REFERENCES BLOCK,N. J., & DWORKIN, G. (Eds.) T h e l Q coaroversy: critical readings. New York: Pantheon, 1976. HAYS,J. R., & SOLWAY.K. S. Violent behavior and differential Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children characteristics. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1977,45, 1187. KAMIN, L. Heredity, intelligence, politics, and psychology: 11. In N. J. Block & G. Dworkin ( E d s . ) , T h e IQ controversy: critical readings. N e w York: Pantheon, 1976. Pp. 374-382. KUNCE, J. T., RYAN, J. J., & ECKELMAN,C. C. Violent behavior and differential WAlS characteristics. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1976, 44, 42-45. MISCHEL, W. Introdt~ctiont o personality. (2nd ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehan & Winston, 1976. Accepted August 13, 1979.
VIOLENT BEHAVIOR A N D DIFFERENTIAL WAIS CHARACTERISTICS AMONG BLACK PRISON INMATES1 FRANK T. LIRA
THOMAS J. FAGAN
Petersbrcrg Psychiatric Institute Petersburg, Virginia
U. S. Department of Justice Federal Correctional Institution Pete~sburg, Virginia
MICHAEL J. WHITE Ball State University Summary.-WAIS data were collected from 51 black incarcerated youthful offenders assigned to three groups on the basis of severity of crimes. Similarities ratios were significantly lower for non-violent offenders than violent and moderately violent offenders, the reverse of results reported by others for white and mixed racial samples. Pitfalls of using the Similarities ratio as a clinical diagnostic measure without normative data are discussed.
Two studies have recently reported that violent, incarcerated offenders may be distinguished from non-violent offenders based upon scores obtained on the Similarities subcest of Wechsler intelligence scales. In the first study (Kunce, Ryan, & Eckelman, 1976), white offenders confined within the maximum security forensic unit of a state hospital and categorized as violent, i.e., murderers, rapists, and kidnappers, obtained significantly lower Similarities scores on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) than non-violent offenders, i.e., thieves, drug violators, forgers, and burglars. Hays and Solway ( 1977), in a second study, found a corresponding relationship, but with higher mean scores, on the Similarities subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children when they tested a racially mixed group of violent and non-violent juvenile delinquents. Due to either restrictions or ambiguities in the sampling procedures used by these authors, the racial generalizability of these findings must be considered problematic. Kunce, et al. (1976) chose to restrict their sample to white, male offenders due to the doubtful validity of WAIS test scores with non-white respondents. Hays and Solway ( 1977) did not attempt to control for race or sex in their study. Both sex and, it is assumed, various races were included in their "mixed" sample in unspecified ratios. Information describing the Similarities ratio/violence relationship among minority group inmates currently does not exist. The history of intelligence and personality test evaluation (Block & Dworkin, 1976) would suggest that with'The authors would like to express their appreciation to the administration of the Federal Correctional Institution. Petersburg, Virginia for allowing these data to be collected within their facility and to ~ i n d a~ a r v a n i kfo;her assistance i n preparing this manuscript. The views presented are solely those of the authors and are neither endorsed nor disclaimed by the U. S. Bureau of Prisons. Requests for reprints should be addressed to F. T. Lira, 36 Filmore St., Petersburg Psychiatric Institute, Petersburg, VA 23803.
PRISONERS' WAIS SCORES A N D VIOLENCE
357
out such specific information the likelihood of interpretive error with deleterious consequences to minority groups is extremely high. The impact of such errors is particularly acute among institutionalized and incarcerated populations. And when the relative over-representation of minority groups in prison is considered the need for appropriate data becomes even more pressing. TO provide some of this needed information, the present study investigated this relationship in a black population of violent, moderately violent, and non-violent young adult offenders confined within a medium security federal correctional institution. WAIS data were collected from 51 black, youthful offenders. Seventeen of these offenders had been cornmitred for violenc crimes against a person including murder, rape, kidnapping, and assault ( M age = 21.1 yr.; M IQ = 89.3). The mean Similarities ratio for this group was 10.54 ( S D = 1.68). A second group of 17 inmates had been convicted of moderately violent crimes such as armed robbery in which the potential for violence existed, but where no actual physical contact or harm was reported. This group had a mean age of 21.5 yr., a mean IQ of 95.4, and a mean Similarities ratio of 10.25 (SD= 1.31). A third group ( n = 17) had been committed for non-violent crimes such as narcotics violations, forgery, mail theft, and motor vehicle violations. This group had a mean age of 22.9 yr., a mean IQ of 90.8, and a mean Similarities ratio of 9.00 ( S D = 1.81). Results indicated that non-violent offenders obtained significantly lower Similarities ratios than both violent ( I = 2.48, p < .02) and moderately violent offenders ( t = 2.23, p < .05). This pattern of Similarities ratios is the r.everJe of that reported by both Kunce, et al. (1976) and Hays and Solway (1977). Two explanations of these findings are offered. First, and perhaps more tenable, is that the validity of the Similarities ratio as a diagnostic index of violent behavior among black offenders must be questioned. An extensive literature exists documenting the general cultural biases inherent in the WAIS and other, similar instruments (Block & Dworkin, 1976; Kamin, 1976; Mischel, 1976). In the absence of data to the contrary, the discrepancies between patterns of Similarities ratios previously reported among whites (Hays & Solway, 1977; Kunce, et al., 1976) and those obtained among blacks in the present study would seem best explained as a part of this larger problem in psychometric cultural bias. W'AIS Similarities ratios may not reflect the same processes for blacks as whites, may measure them unreliably, or the relation of cognitive processes measured by the Similarities subtest with violence may be entirely different for blacks and for whites. Results may also be viewed from a second, more speculative perspective. Poor impulse control and a general inability to conceptualize behavioral alternatives were cited as reasons for the lower Similarities ratios reported among vio-
358
F.
T. LIRA, ET AL.
lent, white offenders (Kunce, et al., 1976). It is highly unlikely these explanations hold for the violent, black offender. In the present sample, violent, black offenders obtained the highest Similarities ratios of all three groups. If the same interpretative criteria for blacks as whites are admitted, this would suggest both good impulse control and an ability to conceptualize behavioral alternatives. It is possible that within the black, inner-city, ghetto population which the present sample represented, subcultural norms, limited perceived alternatives for violence, and aggressive role models facilitate aggressive behavior as the preferred alternative in a broad range of situations. Significant differences were not found between the violent and moderately violent groups tested in this study. Further research utilizing a broader sample of minority groups, sexes, and urban/rural residence is needed to determine if this finding is the result of the arbitrary definitions used to differentiate between violent and moderately violent offenders in the present study or the result of the Similarities ratio's inability to discriminate between varying degrees of violence. While further research is clearly needed, non-experimental, clinical use of the Similarities ratio to assess potential for violence among blacks is unwarranted. Given the consequences of a "false positive" categorization for violence, particularly within a forensic setting, and the current limitations of research on this index, its applied use is not presently justifiable. REFERENCES BLOCK,N. J., & DWORKIN, G. (Eds.) T h e l Q coaroversy: critical readings. New York: Pantheon, 1976. HAYS,J. R., & SOLWAY.K. S. Violent behavior and differential Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children characteristics. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1977,45, 1187. KAMIN, L. Heredity, intelligence, politics, and psychology: 11. In N. J. Block & G. Dworkin ( E d s . ) , T h e IQ controversy: critical readings. N e w York: Pantheon, 1976. Pp. 374-382. KUNCE, J. T., RYAN, J. J., & ECKELMAN,C. C. Violent behavior and differential WAlS characteristics. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1976, 44, 42-45. MISCHEL, W. Introdt~ctiont o personality. (2nd ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehan & Winston, 1976. Accepted August 13, 1979.
