journal of Ceronfo/ogi/ 1975, Vol. 30, No. 1, 73-76
Voluntary Association Participation and Life Satisfaction: A Replication Note1 C. Neil Bull, PhD, and Jackie B. Aucoin2
\^OLUNTARY organization participation as a * direct predictor of the well-being of the aged, without regard to further social characteristics of the participants, has been challenged (Cutler, 1973). The importance of the research by Cutler was that for the first time data were presented to determine if voluntary association participation had any significant relationship to life satisfaction when specific social characteristics such as health and socioeconomic status were controlled. The consequences of voluntary association participation for the aged had been previously questioned (Havighurst & Albrecht, 1953; Riley & Foner, 1968; Wilensky, 1961) but lacked the empirical evidence to support their assumptions. The information presented by Cutler (1973) showed that: . . . the positive relationship between participation in voluntary associations and life satisfaction of the aged is an artifact of the manner in which participants differ from non-participants. Better subjective health or higher socioeconomic status tend to be more prevalent among older people who are high participators. After controlling for the distributive effects of health and status, participation in voluntary associations .explains no significant relationship with life satisfaction. Although these findings were of a tentative nature due to the size of the sample (159) and the restricted geographic area from which the sample was selected (Oberlin, Ohio), the relationship found could be of importance to persons working in the area of providing voluntary association participation opportunities for the elderly. Support 1 This research was partially supported by a Faculty Research Grant from the Univ. of Missouri-Kansas City. 2 Dept. of Sociology, Univ. of. Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City 64110.
for this relationship was found by Edwards and Klemmack (1973); but Palmore and Luikart (1972) found that organizational activity had a small and significant relationship to life satisfaction .even when controlling for the variables of health and socioeconomic status. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a replication study conducted 3 years later to see if the relationships found by Cutler hold up over time and in a different geographic region. The importance of replication studies cannot be underestimated. That replication is important is generally not in dispute, but rather the attention sociologists give to replication is minimal, thus sociology as a "science" suffers (Camilleri, 1962; Hill, 1969). Only recently has a systematic look been taken at replication as a verification technique (La Sorte, 1972). Replication studies are of tremendous importance in building confidence in the better studies of the aged. DATA AND METHODS
The data for the replication study were collected during the month of June, 1973, by a survey of a randomly selected sample of 97 (representing a 46% response rate) noninstitutionalized respondents aged 65 or older. The interviews of 30-min. duration were conducted with respondents who lived within nine specific census tracts of Kansas City. These census tracts were purposefully chosen for their range of median housing value, $10,500 to $34,600. From Table 1 the populations and samples of both the original study and the replication study can be compared. The main disparities between the samples are the response rate, level of income, and sample size. The vastly
73
Downloaded from http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/ at New York University on June 23, 2015
The results of a replication study carried out in Kansas City in 1973 are compared with the original study in Oberlin, Ohio, in 1970 to see if the relationship between participation in voluntary associations and life satisfaction of the aged holds up over time and in a different geographic region. In a confirmation of the original study, the data indicate that health and status characteristics are more potent predictors of life satisfaction than participation in voluntary associations, which shows a nonsignificant relationship to life satisfaction when controlling for the effects of health and status.
74
BULL AND AUCOIN
Median income Median age Male Female White Black
$4,908 74 34(35.1%) 63(64.9%) 91 (93.8%) 6 ( 6.2%) a Estimates, since figures are not available for 5 census small an N. b Estimated from the 1960 census figures.
$3,200 74 49(28.8%) 121 (71.2%) 137(80.6%) 33 (19.4%) tracts due to too
The data in the replication study were analyzed by multiple classification analysis (MCA), which was determined to be the most appropriate statistical method. For this purpose the dependent variable "life satisfaction" had to be dichotomized. Cutler (1973) gives a more
Downloaded from http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/ at New York University on June 23, 2015
lower response rate in Kansas City was due into three approximately equal groups of high, to the fact that the interviewers did not have medium, and low participation. The possible the names of specific people to contact, but range of the index ran from 0 to 26; and the rather used a block sampling method and then cutoff points for low, medium, and high were on arrival at a dwelling had to establish that 0-3, 4-8, and 9-26, respectively. The same a person aged 65 or over resided in the chosen cutoff points were used in the 1973 replication dwelling. With respect to income the Kansas study. City replication sample had a significantly Life satisfaction was measured by 14 items higher median income. The two samples are from the A form of the Neugarten, Havighurst, comparable with respect to median age. A and Tobin life satisfaction index (1961). Atticomparison with the 1970 census data reveals tude questions were asked and the respondent the 1973 sample to be well representative of answered with "agree" or "disagree," the the Kansas City population with respect to the "satisfied" response being scored a 1 and the percentage of males and females and the per- "dissatisfied" response a 0. The number of centage of whites and blacks, as indicated in satisfied responses divided by the number of Table 1. With respect to sex and race, the actual responses yielded a percentage index two samples differ but seem to represent differ- from 0.000 to 1.000. The 1973 data ranged ences in the population. The Kansas City from .142 to 1.000 on the life satisfaction scale, sample includes more males and fewer blacks with a midpoint of .769. This was dichotothan the Oberlin sample, as does the Kansas mized into low and high groups at about the City population. midpoint of the frequency distribution, which The method of measuring voluntary asso- for the Cutler study was .750. This same cutciation participation in the 1973 replication off point (.750) was used in the 1973 replicastudy was identical to that of the 1970 study. tion study. A three-part index of participation was derived Subjective health as a controlling variable from the following information: number of was determined by the following question: association memberships, number of associations very involved in, and the frequency of "Concerning your health now, would you say attendance at association meetings (indicated your health is excellent, good, fair, poor, or along a 6-point scale running from "more very poor?" The variable was then collapsed than once a week" to "never"). Scores on into three categories: "Excellent," "Good," and these items were combined for an over-all index "Fair through Very Poor." This criterion for that was divided by Cutler in the 1970 study categorizing subjective health, as well as the actual question itself, was repeated exactly from the 1970 study. The other controlling variable, Table 1. Comparison of Population and Sample Characteristics of 1970 and 1973 Studies. socioeconomic status, was measured by the Population Hollingshead 2-factor index of social position Oberlin Kansas City for the head of the household. This index (9 Census Tracts) Whole City October-November, consisted of the occupation of the head of the June, 1973 1970 Time period household (weighted by 7), plus educational 35,802 8,761 Total population level on a seven-point scale (weighted by 4) 891 (10%) Total 65+ 5,664 (15%) running from "7 years or less" to "post gradu295 (33%) Total 65+ male 2,638(35%) 3,626(64%) 596 (67%) Total 65+ female ate education." The uncollapsed scale ran from Total 65+ white 677 (76%)>> 5,447(96%)" a low of 11 to a high of 77 and these scores Total 65+ black and other 214 (24%)>> 217 ( 4%)» were trichotomized into the. following groups: Sample Oberlin Kansas City high (11-26), medium (27-52), and low (53Whole City (9 Census Tracts) 77). Again, identioal cutting points were used Sample size 97 170 in both studies. Response rate 46% 85%
ASSOCIATIONS AND SATISFACTION—A RETEST detailed outline in his article as to the use of this statistical technique. RESULTS
very poor" of .725, .500, and .291, respectively. A slightly different relationship existed in the 1973 study. Very little difference occurred between the gross means of "excellent" and "good" with the category "good" registering the highest (.644) and "excellent" a lesser gross mean of .632. The category "fair through very poor" (.273) did correspond to lower life satisfaction. Cutler indicates that participation in voluntary associations is related also to socioeconomic status and health and he determines higher status is related to higher participation at the .05 level by the F-test for gross effects (eta= .182). However, analysis of the 1973 data reveal no significance at the .05 level (eta=.233). Cutler shows a significant relationship between better health and higher participation at the .01 level (eta=.238), while the 1973 study shows this correlation to be significant at the .05 level (eta=.292). The empirical question then becomes (Cutler, 1973): . . . one of determining whether the higher life satisfaction of the aged who participated in voluntary associations is to some significant extent a function of participation, or rather a function of the self-selection of more satisfied (i.e., higher status or healthier) persons into the association.
Controlling for the effects of status and health, the net effects of voluntary association participation are given in Table 2. In both studies the net life satisfaction scores do vary positively in accordance with participation, but the size of the differences in scores between high and low participators is reduced. Also, the amount of variance in life satisfaction explained by the net effects of voluntary participation (beta squared), is considerably reduced compared with the gross effects (eta squared), and like-
Table 2. Gross and Net Effects of Voluntary Association Participation, Socioeconomic Status, and Subjective Assessment of Health on Life Satisfaction - 1970 and 1973 Studies. Predictor N 70 Variable Voluntary association participation High 51 Medium 56 52 Low Socioeconomic status 54 High Medium 51 54 Low Subjective health Excellent 40 64 Good Fair - Very Poor 55 159 Total
N 73
% 70
% 73
30 35 32
32.1 35.2 32.7
30.9 36.1 33.0
.627 .700 .446 .457 .385 .406 .203 . 251 p
Voluntary Association Participation and Life Satisfaction: A Replication Note1 C. Neil Bull, PhD, and Jackie B. Aucoin2
\^OLUNTARY organization participation as a * direct predictor of the well-being of the aged, without regard to further social characteristics of the participants, has been challenged (Cutler, 1973). The importance of the research by Cutler was that for the first time data were presented to determine if voluntary association participation had any significant relationship to life satisfaction when specific social characteristics such as health and socioeconomic status were controlled. The consequences of voluntary association participation for the aged had been previously questioned (Havighurst & Albrecht, 1953; Riley & Foner, 1968; Wilensky, 1961) but lacked the empirical evidence to support their assumptions. The information presented by Cutler (1973) showed that: . . . the positive relationship between participation in voluntary associations and life satisfaction of the aged is an artifact of the manner in which participants differ from non-participants. Better subjective health or higher socioeconomic status tend to be more prevalent among older people who are high participators. After controlling for the distributive effects of health and status, participation in voluntary associations .explains no significant relationship with life satisfaction. Although these findings were of a tentative nature due to the size of the sample (159) and the restricted geographic area from which the sample was selected (Oberlin, Ohio), the relationship found could be of importance to persons working in the area of providing voluntary association participation opportunities for the elderly. Support 1 This research was partially supported by a Faculty Research Grant from the Univ. of Missouri-Kansas City. 2 Dept. of Sociology, Univ. of. Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City 64110.
for this relationship was found by Edwards and Klemmack (1973); but Palmore and Luikart (1972) found that organizational activity had a small and significant relationship to life satisfaction .even when controlling for the variables of health and socioeconomic status. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a replication study conducted 3 years later to see if the relationships found by Cutler hold up over time and in a different geographic region. The importance of replication studies cannot be underestimated. That replication is important is generally not in dispute, but rather the attention sociologists give to replication is minimal, thus sociology as a "science" suffers (Camilleri, 1962; Hill, 1969). Only recently has a systematic look been taken at replication as a verification technique (La Sorte, 1972). Replication studies are of tremendous importance in building confidence in the better studies of the aged. DATA AND METHODS
The data for the replication study were collected during the month of June, 1973, by a survey of a randomly selected sample of 97 (representing a 46% response rate) noninstitutionalized respondents aged 65 or older. The interviews of 30-min. duration were conducted with respondents who lived within nine specific census tracts of Kansas City. These census tracts were purposefully chosen for their range of median housing value, $10,500 to $34,600. From Table 1 the populations and samples of both the original study and the replication study can be compared. The main disparities between the samples are the response rate, level of income, and sample size. The vastly
73
Downloaded from http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/ at New York University on June 23, 2015
The results of a replication study carried out in Kansas City in 1973 are compared with the original study in Oberlin, Ohio, in 1970 to see if the relationship between participation in voluntary associations and life satisfaction of the aged holds up over time and in a different geographic region. In a confirmation of the original study, the data indicate that health and status characteristics are more potent predictors of life satisfaction than participation in voluntary associations, which shows a nonsignificant relationship to life satisfaction when controlling for the effects of health and status.
74
BULL AND AUCOIN
Median income Median age Male Female White Black
$4,908 74 34(35.1%) 63(64.9%) 91 (93.8%) 6 ( 6.2%) a Estimates, since figures are not available for 5 census small an N. b Estimated from the 1960 census figures.
$3,200 74 49(28.8%) 121 (71.2%) 137(80.6%) 33 (19.4%) tracts due to too
The data in the replication study were analyzed by multiple classification analysis (MCA), which was determined to be the most appropriate statistical method. For this purpose the dependent variable "life satisfaction" had to be dichotomized. Cutler (1973) gives a more
Downloaded from http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/ at New York University on June 23, 2015
lower response rate in Kansas City was due into three approximately equal groups of high, to the fact that the interviewers did not have medium, and low participation. The possible the names of specific people to contact, but range of the index ran from 0 to 26; and the rather used a block sampling method and then cutoff points for low, medium, and high were on arrival at a dwelling had to establish that 0-3, 4-8, and 9-26, respectively. The same a person aged 65 or over resided in the chosen cutoff points were used in the 1973 replication dwelling. With respect to income the Kansas study. City replication sample had a significantly Life satisfaction was measured by 14 items higher median income. The two samples are from the A form of the Neugarten, Havighurst, comparable with respect to median age. A and Tobin life satisfaction index (1961). Atticomparison with the 1970 census data reveals tude questions were asked and the respondent the 1973 sample to be well representative of answered with "agree" or "disagree," the the Kansas City population with respect to the "satisfied" response being scored a 1 and the percentage of males and females and the per- "dissatisfied" response a 0. The number of centage of whites and blacks, as indicated in satisfied responses divided by the number of Table 1. With respect to sex and race, the actual responses yielded a percentage index two samples differ but seem to represent differ- from 0.000 to 1.000. The 1973 data ranged ences in the population. The Kansas City from .142 to 1.000 on the life satisfaction scale, sample includes more males and fewer blacks with a midpoint of .769. This was dichotothan the Oberlin sample, as does the Kansas mized into low and high groups at about the City population. midpoint of the frequency distribution, which The method of measuring voluntary asso- for the Cutler study was .750. This same cutciation participation in the 1973 replication off point (.750) was used in the 1973 replicastudy was identical to that of the 1970 study. tion study. A three-part index of participation was derived Subjective health as a controlling variable from the following information: number of was determined by the following question: association memberships, number of associations very involved in, and the frequency of "Concerning your health now, would you say attendance at association meetings (indicated your health is excellent, good, fair, poor, or along a 6-point scale running from "more very poor?" The variable was then collapsed than once a week" to "never"). Scores on into three categories: "Excellent," "Good," and these items were combined for an over-all index "Fair through Very Poor." This criterion for that was divided by Cutler in the 1970 study categorizing subjective health, as well as the actual question itself, was repeated exactly from the 1970 study. The other controlling variable, Table 1. Comparison of Population and Sample Characteristics of 1970 and 1973 Studies. socioeconomic status, was measured by the Population Hollingshead 2-factor index of social position Oberlin Kansas City for the head of the household. This index (9 Census Tracts) Whole City October-November, consisted of the occupation of the head of the June, 1973 1970 Time period household (weighted by 7), plus educational 35,802 8,761 Total population level on a seven-point scale (weighted by 4) 891 (10%) Total 65+ 5,664 (15%) running from "7 years or less" to "post gradu295 (33%) Total 65+ male 2,638(35%) 3,626(64%) 596 (67%) Total 65+ female ate education." The uncollapsed scale ran from Total 65+ white 677 (76%)>> 5,447(96%)" a low of 11 to a high of 77 and these scores Total 65+ black and other 214 (24%)>> 217 ( 4%)» were trichotomized into the. following groups: Sample Oberlin Kansas City high (11-26), medium (27-52), and low (53Whole City (9 Census Tracts) 77). Again, identioal cutting points were used Sample size 97 170 in both studies. Response rate 46% 85%
ASSOCIATIONS AND SATISFACTION—A RETEST detailed outline in his article as to the use of this statistical technique. RESULTS
very poor" of .725, .500, and .291, respectively. A slightly different relationship existed in the 1973 study. Very little difference occurred between the gross means of "excellent" and "good" with the category "good" registering the highest (.644) and "excellent" a lesser gross mean of .632. The category "fair through very poor" (.273) did correspond to lower life satisfaction. Cutler indicates that participation in voluntary associations is related also to socioeconomic status and health and he determines higher status is related to higher participation at the .05 level by the F-test for gross effects (eta= .182). However, analysis of the 1973 data reveal no significance at the .05 level (eta=.233). Cutler shows a significant relationship between better health and higher participation at the .01 level (eta=.238), while the 1973 study shows this correlation to be significant at the .05 level (eta=.292). The empirical question then becomes (Cutler, 1973): . . . one of determining whether the higher life satisfaction of the aged who participated in voluntary associations is to some significant extent a function of participation, or rather a function of the self-selection of more satisfied (i.e., higher status or healthier) persons into the association.
Controlling for the effects of status and health, the net effects of voluntary association participation are given in Table 2. In both studies the net life satisfaction scores do vary positively in accordance with participation, but the size of the differences in scores between high and low participators is reduced. Also, the amount of variance in life satisfaction explained by the net effects of voluntary participation (beta squared), is considerably reduced compared with the gross effects (eta squared), and like-
Table 2. Gross and Net Effects of Voluntary Association Participation, Socioeconomic Status, and Subjective Assessment of Health on Life Satisfaction - 1970 and 1973 Studies. Predictor N 70 Variable Voluntary association participation High 51 Medium 56 52 Low Socioeconomic status 54 High Medium 51 54 Low Subjective health Excellent 40 64 Good Fair - Very Poor 55 159 Total
N 73
% 70
% 73
30 35 32
32.1 35.2 32.7
30.9 36.1 33.0
.627 .700 .446 .457 .385 .406 .203 . 251 p
