WORK A Journal of Prevention, Assessment & Rehabilitation
ELSEVIER
Work 9 (1997) 177-186
Global health issue
World literacy: obstacles and opportunities Judith A. Garello*, Donna Mcivor Joss Occupational Therapy Department, Worcester State College, 486 Chandler St., Worcester, MA 01602, USA
Keywords: Literacy; Women's rights; Human rights
1. Introduction Literacy is commonly defined as a person's ability to read and write, and illiteracy the inability to read and write, but a true understanding of literacy, and illiteracy, is much more complex than such a simple dichotomy implies. For instance, if one is able to write one's own name, but unable to fill out a job application because he or she does not understand the words 'previous' or 'experience', is that person considered literate or illiterate? How much reading and writing ability must one possess before one can be considered literate? Questions such as this gave birth to the term functional literacy. Functional Literacy refers to one's ability to use language skills to cope with every day demands (ILY, 1990). In other words, if one's ability to read and write is so limited that it prevents him or her from functioning in society, e.g. purchasing goods, reading a bus schedule or following instructions on a medicine bottle, then that person is by definition, functionally illiterate. It becomes
* Corresponding author. mail:[email protected]
Fax:
+ 1 508 7938184; e-
apparent that across the globe, literacy runs along a continuum with literacy at one end and illiteracy at the other end. There is a vast region between the two extremes of this continuum in which functional literacy resides. Those who are not literate enough to participate in today's job market are not contributing to the world economy, cost the economy billions of dollars in unemployment and welfare payments, and damages the economy because of the billions of dollars lost each year in unrealized earnings. According to the estimates of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) there are approximately 960 million illiterate adults (age 15 and older) in the world today. In addition, there are 125 million children worldwide that are not enrolled in school, the majority of whom are girls. This paper explores the mission and progress of UNESCOs Education For All 2000 (EFA2000) project, and the global impact of the issues surrounding illiteracy in the world today such as the relationship of female literacy rates and family size, infant mortality, and children's health; literacy and poverty; obstacles to acquiring literacy skills; the extent and impact of functional illiter-
1051-9815/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. PIl SI051-9815(97)00035-1
178
J.A. Garello. D. Mclvor Joss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
acy amongst adults in the developed nations; the impact of multi-lingual societies in countries such as India, China, and Nigeria on the efforts to spread literacy; the impact of illiteracy on communication; the different cultural perspectives regarding the value of literacy; the opportunities available to literate persons; various literacy programs in progress today around the world; the acquisition of literacy; and the difficulties encountered in the development of literacy assessment tools. 2. The distribution of illiteracy Today's illiterate adults are those who never had access to education, were unable to complete their schooling, or those who live in regions in which literacy skills are not used and thus, have relapsed into illiteracy (Lourie, 1990). One woman in three is illiterate and one man in five is illiterate. In industrialized countries illiteracy rates are as high as 20% (Ryan, 1990). Over 95% of the illiterate live in the developing regions of the world: 54% of citizens in Southern Asia are illiterate; 53% in Sub-Saharan Africa; 49% in the Arab States; 24% in Eastern Asia; and Latin America and the Caribbean each have 15% illiteracy rates (ILY, 1990). The highest concentration of totally illiterate individuals are in the most densely populated areas of the world, notably Asia with approximately 700 million, of which 490 million are in China and India. In 1985 it was estimated that of the illiterate population in Africa, 65% of them were women (Lourie, 1990). Industrialized nations face a continuing problem with functional illiteracy: citizens with reading and writing abilities inadequate to cope with everyday demands. In developed nations, between 5 and 20% of adults are functionally illiterate. Although illiteracy has been considered something of the past in developed nations, it has become clear over the past 20 years that this is not the case. 3. Historical perspective of literacy In past generations, reading and writing were
luxury skills, privileges only of those who could afford to pay for schooling, privileges reserved for the elite and powerful. The notion of literacy as a basic human right is a recent one. Literacy, which was once reserved for recording religion and laws, gradually expanded as the growth of commerce and industrialization increased the demands for literacy. Worldwide literacy is a post-WWII phenomenon (ILY, 1990). Many people in the pre-industrial age had to make a living without ever acquiring literacy skills. In an economy that depended on manual labor, it was possible as recently as two generations ago to achieve relative economic success without being literate. People managed daily activities in their shops, communities, and on farms without literacy skills. As public education expanded, training in reading and writing became available to more people. As the world economy developed, business and trade industries began to require the ability to read and comprehend printed material in order to remain competitive in the market. 4. Literacy today Today, especially in the developed countries reading, writing, and comprehension are integral parts of daily life. Reading the newspaper, following written instructions, reading books for pleasure, paying bills, reading street signs, and reading labels on food, clothing, and medications are all parts of daily life that require the comprehension of written material. An individual who does not continue to meet the demands for literacy in a developing society may be a member of the functionally illiterate of future generations. Many factors contribute to illiteracy: inadequate or overcrowded schools; limited access to schools; poor attendance; early pregnancy; high dropout rates; physical and emotional problems; poverty which places the need to work as a priority over education; disadvantaged home environments; cultures that place little value on literacy; and immigrants and refugees who have not mastered the language of their host country. It is important to remember that illiteracy does not preclude knowledge, wisdom, or intelligence.
l.A. Garello, D. Mc/vorloss /Work9 (1997) 177-186
Rather, literacy can be thought of as a key, one which provides access to a storehouse of information and knowledge.
4.1. The EFA 2000 project for world literacy In 1990, 155 nations came together at the World Conference for All in Jomtien, Thailand. The year 1990 was called International Literacy Year (ILY). These nations pledged to take the necessary steps to provide education for all children, and to greatly reduce adult illiteracy by the year 2000. This project is the Education for All (EFA 2000) project. The EFA 2000 project was organized in respons.e to widespread concern over the inadequacy and deterioration of education systems that occurred during the economic crisis of the 1980s, and out of concern for the millions of children and adults worldwide who remain illiterate for various other reasons (EFA Press Kit, June 1996). Presently, progress has been made in many areas such as higher enrollment in primary education, better quality and greater relevance of educational material, and the implementation of volunteer-run adult literacy programs. However, much more needs to be done to achieve the goal of world literacy.
4.2. Literacy and women in the Third World More than 500 million illiterate women live in the rural regions of Third World countries. They live in impoverished rural areas and their days are consumed by the many arduous tasks they engage in as they struggle for the survival and welfare of their families. Lack of time is one of the most serious obstacles to literacy for rural women. The obligations they are confronted with daily leave them little time and energy for educational activities, if the resources for education exist at all (Chlebowska, 1990). Generally, a rural woman begins her day early, around 04.30 and ends it late, around 21.00. During a typical day, a woman in Mali, for example, will fetch water, prepare meals, wash, dress, and feed the children, pound millet, collect vegetables and leaves, wash laundry, go to the market, carry meals to the men on the fields, till, hoe,
179
weed, and plant on the farming plot, gather firewood, collect fruit and nuts, fetch more water, clean the compound, prepare dinner, and spin cotton before she retires for the evening. In many developing countries, literacy skills for women have historically been assigned a low priority compared to other responsibilities. Literacy training for women in developing countries is a relatively recent phenomenon. Although there are literacy classes available in many developing nations, women are not always willing or able to take the time out of their already overburdening day to attend. However, women are more motivated to learn reading and writing when courses include basic knowledge and skills that address their immediate needs and are adapted to their daily existence (Chlebowska, 1990). For example, one woman tells the story of how she was able to save her child's life because she had learned to read and why she now equates literacy with survival. Salaan is a 24-year-old Cambodian woman with a 9-month-old son, Naroi. Naroi was suffering with a terrible bout of diarrhea, a common but devastating illness for children in Third World countries. Many children die of dehydration as a result of diarrhea, but Salaan had learned in a literacy class how to make a rehydration solution. One and a half years prior, she did not know that diarrhea led to dehydration and often death. She had never been to school, could not read or write, and believed that sickness was caused by evil spirits. But Salaan's attendance in literacy classes resulted in her ability to mix up a 6-cent cure which saved her son's life. This is only one example which illustrates the link between a mother's education and the health of her children. In Pakistan and Indonesia the infant mortality rate among children whose mothers have had 4 years of schooling was found to be 50% lower than among children whose mothers were illiterate. Many women in Third World countries cannot read medicine prescriptions or simple health education posters on the importance of breastfeeding, vaccinations, and the preparation of clean food and water (Shimbum, 1990). When the daily needs of the women are addressed in literacy classes, participation is higher. In Bangkok, women are attending literacy classes that teach
180
J.A. Garello, D. McIvor Joss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
skills in health education, housekeeping, and nutrition as well as reading, writing, and basic numeracy. In the context of developing countries, especially in the more rural areas, people are not always confronted with the written word, so familiarity with the alphabet is not considered an urgent need. Generation after generation has grown up by following and respecting oral traditions alone. Incorporating lessons into the literacy classes that can ease their daily struggles yields better results in participation by providing immediate benefits for the women and their families (Chlebowska, 1990). 4.3. Obstacles to literacy for girls in rural Third World countries
The lifestyle and living conditions inherent of the rural regions of Third World countries presents obstacles to acquiring literacy for girls and women. The distance from the school is one of the main obstacles to school attendance. In rural areas where transportation is limited, parents hesitate to send their daughters to a school which they consider too far from their home. If transportation is available, it is rarely free. Parents who are poor either choose not to send their children to school at all, or choose to send only the boys. A recent study in Egypt has shown that the percentage of school attendance when the school was 1 km away was 94% for boys and 72% for girls. When the school was 2 Ian away the attendance was 90% for boys and 64% for girls (Chlebowska, 1990). In Third World countries, parents do not always consider it important for the girls to attend school. It is considered more important for the boys because they will become heads of households themselves and will need to provide for the family. Sending the girls to school is not considered essential, especially when she could be performing household chores that, in the eyes of the parents, are more important. The girls will stay at home and prepare meals, take care of younger siblings, fetch water, pound millet, fetch firewood, and help with farming chores and crafts. Chlebowska'a study (1990) highlights some of the factors which prevent the girls in Third World
Countries from attending school. They vary among different countries, continents, and cultures, but commonly, they are inherent in the institutions and in society at large, or they are determined by the home or the school. In the home, conditions for doing homework are poor. Mothers are often ill, or too tired from a succession of births, to perform many chores, and must rely on the daughters for help. Young girls are too tired to attend school because they are over-worked in the home. Parents do not encourage educational activities because they do not believe that education is compatible with feminine qualities. Parents may not accept mixed classes; parents fearing that their daughter'S reputation will be damaged and she will subsequently lose the opportunity for marriage. In the school, factors which impact negatively on female literacy include unqualified schoolmasters, or ones who take no interest in educating female students, inadequate communication between schoolmasters and parents, parents' fear of sexual misconduct by the schoolmaster, and inadequate primary and secondary schools. 4.4. Obstacles to female literacy in Pakistan
According to Tefft (1991) the biggest obstacles to continuing efforts to spread literacy in feudal Pakistan is the official indifference and opposition from leaders and the tribal elite. Landlords and industrialists in Pakistan do not want to increase literacy in the country because they fear that people will ask for their rights. Based on the 1981 census, only 26.2% of Pakistanis are literate. Among women, only 16% are literate. Public resources concentrate on funding the powerful military, and of the funds that do go towards education, most of it goes to the universities, the domain of the elite. Pakistan's traditional tribal system creates barriers for the girls and women because they are considered the property of men. In some of the more rigid tribes the women are not allowed outside. It is not considered important to educate the women because all they have to do is care for the children and cook. Educators report that Pakistani's are beginning to realize that education is the key to breaking
I.A. Garel/o, D. Mclvorloss /Work 9 (1997) 177-186
the vicious cycle of poverty and social oppression, but there is little sense of urgency. There are literacy programs available in 90 farming villages in Punjab, Pakistan. However, UNICEF reports that fewer than 200000 people per year take advantage of the programs, at that rate Pakistan will need 2 centuries to achieve universal literacy reports Tefft (1991). There are also women who see no advantage to being literate. In fact, in their culture it is considered a disadvantage because a literate woman may not be able to ge,t a husband.
4.5. Acquisition of literacy: rural us. urban In developed nations, people may consider formal education to be the only means of providing literacy skills to children. However, people are products of their environments, and thus learn as a member of a family, or a team; as a worker, a watcher, or a listener. In other words, many paths to literacy can be found in an environment that encourages and supports it. Conversely, illiteracy is found primarily in areas where it is considered acceptable. To clearly understand the problem of illiteracy, it is important to consider some of the environmental forces that influence attitudes and behaviors regarding literacy (Harman, 1987). Most urban children encounter written language every day in road signs, billboards, store window displays, television and newspapers. Perhaps these encounters provide children with the fundamentals of literacy. Children in rural areas of developing countries seldom, if ever, see written language in their daily lives. Perhaps formal schooling is the only means for these children to obtain literacy (Stevenson and Chen, 1992). The acquisition of literacy requires one to interact with a literate environment. This highlights the perception that literate parents will have literate children. It is likely that literate parents will provide a variety of opportunities for children to learn to read. Wagner (1992) reports that these opportunities may not be available in developing countries where many parents are illiterate. A look at the illiteracy problems in Latin America reveals that even if all children enter primary school, many repeat the first year two or
181
three times, and many drop-out before the 4thyear. The children who fail are frequently children from economically marginal rural areas or urban slums. They are children from disadvantaged homes whose basic human needs are not being met adequately. They lack good nutrition, are in poorer health, have less family involvement in literacy activities, and usually have illiterate parents. These children are more dependent on the school to help them become literate, but when they don't get the help that they need in order to succeed, they drop out and remain illiterate. Another factor attributing to the failure of the rural children is their limited exposure to literacy in their home environments. They do not see their parents reading a newspaper, writing a message, or reading instructions for the use of medicine. These sorts of activities convey meaningful information about the social functions of the written word. As a result, these children may see literacy solely as a school activity and remain unaware of it's potential value for any other purpose (Ferreiro, 1992).
4.6. Acquisition of literacy: adults us. children Successful acquisition of literacy is related to addressing the needs of the individual. For example, different approaches must be taken when teaching literacy skills to adult women in developing countries who are trying to provide safe drinking water for their families, and when teaching children to use their imaginations to create a story. There are various programs in use today that address the different approaches to teaching literacy skills to adults and children. In order to eradicate illiteracy, remedial action needs to be directed at adult populations, and preventive action must be taken with children. Primary education for all children is one way to prevent the legacy of illiteracy from continuing from one generation to the next. Adult basic education programs are aimed at students 16 years old and over. Adult basic education teaches literacy while grounding the adult student in survival skills related to his or her immediate needs.
182
J.A. Garello, D. Mcivor Joss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
4. Z The family and literacy acquisition
Parents are children's first teachers. Children who see their parents engaging in activities that require literacy, e.g. writing letters, paying bills, and reading newspapers, are more motivated to take on literacy activities themselves. Children whose parents read books with them and engage them in other literacy activities have a better understanding of the importance of literacy skills. Unfortunately, there are many parents who lack literacy skills themselves. These parents may leave it up to the school system to meet all of the educational needs of the child. These children begin school with a disadvantage, because prior to entering school they have not received the message that literacy has important social and economic functions (Walker, 1992). Children's early experiences shape their attitudes. Early positive experiences associated with reading will foster a positive attitude regarding the value of literacy. The infant cradled in mother's arms while she reads a story learns that reading is a comfortable experience and that words and pictures are good. There is evidence that even in the most depressed economic conditions, whether the child becomes a reader or not, strongly depends upon a role model who sets an example early in life (Staiger, 1990). 4.8. Cultural perspectives regarding the value of literacy It is important to realize that not all groups of people around the world value literacy equally. A report published in the UNESCO Education News in May of 1996 indicates that in Chile, 45% of the women said they did not need to be literate. Jauregui (1996) reports that many women in Chile felt that they were good housewives and that being literate was not necessary in order to be a good housewife. Many people around the world have been following oral traditions and see no immediate need to be literate. A society where towns have only one main street and all merchants do business on a first-name basis does not require a citizen to understand how to use maps,
telephone books, or a public transportation system. In groups that attach no importance to literacy, illiterate persons may not be socially or economically disadvantaged within their own community (Harmon, 1987). 4.9. Illiteracy, exclusion, and communication
Lourie (1990) views illiteracy as a form of exclusion. In a culturally diverse society, this exclusion needs to be viewed in a social context. Entire societies may be unable to communicate with people in other communities because they lack the means to effectively exchange information. Literacy increases the ability to communicate, which facilitates cultural expression. Literacy can enhance communication across cultural lines, and help people to organize societies to promote the unity of people with common goals (Lourie, 1990). 4.10. Literacy in China
China has made some progress in recent years towards reducing illiteracy among adults by implementing various literacy programs. However, much needs to be done to address the problem of illiteracy among the children, especially in the countryside. According to Tyson (1992), there are more than 180 million people, one out of five, who are illiterate in China. Over 90% of them live in rural areas. In the early 1980s the state turned over the responsibility for funding local education to the counties, townships, and villages. In poverty-stricken villages in the north-western provinces, many cannot afford to pay for school for their children. Parents struggling with survival while living in poverty are putting their children to work in the fields as early as possible. Many remote villages do not have schools and the classrooms that do exist are considered dangerous and ready to collapse. The conditions inside the classrooms are cold, dark, dusty, with a limited supply of desks, stools, and books. For the 9 million primary and secondary school teachers, wages are low, morale of the teachers is poor, and resignation rates are high. From the radical cultural revolution between 1966 and 1976,
l.A. Garello, D. McIvor loss / Work 9 (1997) 177-]86
there is lingering political discrimination against teachers. Tyson (1992) reports that teachers are often attacked by angry students and parents. 4.11. Literacy in industrialized countries
In industrialized countries, literacy is considered a skill that everyone acquires, especially since schooling in these countries is generally compulsory and free. It would seem almost inconceivable that a person who has attended school for many years should be unable to read and write, especially in societies where exposure to the written word is a part of everyday life. Yet, in the early 1970s illiteracy became an important public issue in industrialized countries. In 1972, the British Association of Settlements, a small charitable organization reported that between 7 and 10% of British adolescents were barely able to read simple text when they left school, and that there were approximately 2 million illiterate people in the United Kingdom, not including immigrants (Velis, 1990). More recently, among the industrialized countries the percent of adults with who were totally illiterate or had minimal literacy skills in 1995 ranged from 7.5% in Sweden, 10.5% in the Netherlands, 14/4% in Germany, 16.6% in Canada, 20.7% in the United States and 42.6% in Poland (Press Kit, 1996). Velis (1990) considers the economic impact of functional illiteracy in developed countries significant because industrialized countries attempt to continually improve their ability to compete in the global economy. As technology advances, demands for higher skills increase. The less skilled employees are often the ones who lose their jobs when companies downsize. With limited literacy skills, they find it difficult to secure employment elsewhere, and they may join the ranks of the unemployed who need public financial assistance. Thus, functional illiteracy in industrialized countries is expensive for the individual as well as the nation, and ultimately weakens the country's competitiveness in the world economic market (Velis, 1990). 5. Literacy assessment
There is a need for reliable and valid quantita-
183
tive measurement instruments in order to establish baseline literacy data, track progress in efforts to improve literacy, and to determine the relative effectiveness of literacy programs. The difficulty in defining literacy makes development of valid measurement tools difficult as well. There are three major assessment approaches: self-assessment, surrogate measures, and direct measures. Self-assessed literacy, where individuals rate their own reading and writing abilities, has been used by the United States Census since the 1850s. The accuracy of self-report data regarding literacy levels may be limited. Surrogate measures consider the number of years of schooling that were completed to be the determining factor regarding literacy abilities. These too are inaccurate measures because years of schooling vary in their level of effectiveness regarding literacy. Direct tests are preferable if the resources exist to administer them. Some examples of direct tests are: the Adult Performance Level (APL); the English Language Proficiency Survey (ELPS); and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) literacy survey (Wiley, 1991). Direct measures must also be specific to the situation, population, and environment and must be culturally appropriate. 5.1. Literacy volunteers of America (LVA)
Literacy volunteers of America is a program used throughout the United States that functions mainly as a volunteer tutoring service. LVA methods incorporate the students own language pattern to help that student learn to read. For example, a student will tell a story and the LVA tutor will write up the story and ask the student to read it back. Thus the student learns to read his or her own words first. LVA also uses traditional reading techniques, such as sound and sight words. LVA tutors are trained to try a variety of methods and use what works best for the individual. 5.2. The retired senior volunteer program (RSVP)
The Retired Senior Volunteer Program (RSVP) is a literacy program directed at providing oneon-one tutoring to adults, age 18 and over. The
184
J.A. Carella, D. Mcivor Joss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
services are provided by senior citizens who have volunteered as tutors and have completed the required training program. Sessions are held at many public places such as libraries, churches, schools, community centers, as well as in the home of the tutor or student. Sessions are scheduled at times and places that are convenient for the student in order to increase enrollment and retention. 5.3. Frontier college: students for literacy at the University of Toronto
Frontier College literacy program is a nonprofit, student-run organization. This program offers the development of skills in basic literacy, numeracy, and English as a second language to adults and children in secondary and elementary school. Tutoring sessions are held for a minimum of 3 h per week. 5.4. Thailand
The Hill Areas Education (HAE) project, initially funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is a community based project that provides primary education for children and literacy classes for adults using a curriculum that is sensitive to the needs and cultures of Thailand's six main hill tribes. Since 1980, the project has expanded from covering 45 villages to reaching 600 villages in 1995. It is supported by several non-government organizations working in the hill tribes communities. Approximately 500000 hill people live in these small villages throughout northern and central Thailand. Many do not speak Thai, or have citizenship because they originated from China, Myanmar, and Laos. In 1976, the Thai government decided to integrate the hill tribes into the Thai state and allow them full rights to practice their religion and maintain their culture. The RAE project offers the most widespread form of education available to the adults and children inhabiting these rugged, mountainous regions where villages can often be reached only by foot (Guttman, 1995). The teacher's are expected to learn the local
language, teach the children by day and the adults by night. The teacher is also expected to deal with health problems, act as liaison with government agencies, be a full-time community development worker, and help the villages to initiate projects. The learning center, which is built out of bamboo, wood and grass, serves as a community meeting spot and is also the teachers home. Teacher salaries are equal to those of formal primary school teachers, but they receive no financial compensation such as sick leave, and they receive no medical insurance. It is understandable that the rate of turnover for teachers is high. Teachers often see this job as a way to become a government official (Guttman, 1995). Students who complete the RAE program receive a primary school certificate and can take an equivalency exam to enable them to continue in the formal school system. Although many students do not complete the program, the community as a whole has benefited from it's existence. There is a better awareness about cleanliness, the environment, and drug use. Those that have attended HAE classes are reported to be more expressive and outgoing. One village headman reports that the villagers realize that it is important for the children to learn the Thai language and to read, write, and communicate so that they can travel safely. There are still many villages that remain excluded from any form of education. It is being proposed that the HAE project be expanded to reach 2700 villages and expand secondary education in the hill areas with a program aimed at the recruitment of new teachers (Guttman, 1995). 5.5. China
The Xu an Wei Skills-Based Literacy Program for Women was established in the rural area of Xuan Wei county with a focus on the problems of rural women who have little or no education. There are 75 different training classes available. The women are advised on which ones may best suit their situation, but the women choose their own classes. The classes include other skills necessary for the improvement of living standards such as pre- and post-natal care, health care,
IA. Garello, D. McIvor loss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
family planning and income generating skills. The women of Xuan Wei, typical of many rural women, have very demanding days with little time for rest. Initially the literacy project met with some resistance stemming from the concepts of women's roles and male superiority. Many men objected to their wives or daughters attending classes when there was work to do in the home. Women had accepted their inferior status and did not think they should be educated. As education had for so long been seen as a privilege exclusive to men, the women had to be convinced that they could learn and that they would not be wasting their time because they would learn useful work practices and boost their productivity on their farms (Aksornkool, 1995). By linking literacy with actual production, the project's value was soon realized. More and more women want their children to get a good education. In the past, only the men would make the decisions regarding the children, farming, and education. The Xuan Wei program has empowered rural women to realize that they too are capable of learning, being productive and making money (Aksornkool, 1995). Presently, the Xuan Wei program has brought 36000 women out of illiteracy and the illiteracy rate among young girls has dropped. One young villager remembers how she used to get lost in the streets of Kunming because she couldn't read the signs. Today she has a small shop and sells clothes, feels much more capable, and is aware of other possibilities for her future (Aksornkool, 1995).
6. Conclusion
Those who are not literate enough to participate in today's job market cannot contribute to the world economy. In industrialized nations, their cost to the economies of their countries is billions of dollars in unemployment and welfare payments, as well as billions of dollars lost each year in unrealized earnings. The illiterate do survive: they grow up, play, sing, marry, have children, build homes and huts, buy and sell, and they develop an understanding for life. However, they are undeniably disadvantaged in relation to the
185
other 2.5 billion adults who can read and write. They are excluded from contributing to the worldwide accumulation of written knowledge, history, and culture and from learning from it. literacy may be the key to allow people to develop independence in learning, seeking information, making choices and acting on their future. literacy is a human right and an imperative to national development. It provides a way of mobilizing the mind, so that people may combat poverty, deprivation and injustice. Illiteracy is an immense global problem. World literacy would make it possible for people to communicate internationally on all levels so that the global problems regarding health, environment, natural resources, and many other issues can be confronted. Fortunately there are mechanisms in place to increase the number of literate people in the world. The cooperation of individuals, communities, governments, non-government organizations and international agencies is needed to strengthen the literacy efforts and bring the opportunity for literacy to all. References Aksomkool N. Daughters of the earth. Paris: UNESCO, 1995. Chlebowska K. Literacy for rural women in the third world. Paris: UNESCO, 1990. Ferreiro E. Children's literacy and public schools in Latin America. In: Wagner DA, Puchner LD, editors. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992;520: 143-150. Guttman C. From the Thai hills. EFA 2000, 1995 (Jan-Mar);n18:7. Harman D. Illiteracy: a national dilemma. New York: Cambridge, 1987. ILY. ILY: year of opportunity. Paris: UNESCO, 1990. Jauregui ML. Chile: new report on women's literacy. UNESCO Education News, 1996;n5:3. Lourie S. World literacy: where we stand today. The UNESCO Courier, 1990 (July);7:13-14, 18-20. Press Kit. Education for all: achieving the goal. Paris: UNESCO, 1996 (June). Ryan J. From rhetoric to reality. The UNESCO Courier, 1990 (July);7:10-12. Shimbum Y. Literacy means survival. The Challenge, 1990;1:4-5. Staiger RC. The road to reading. The UNESCO Courier, 1990; (July);7:37-40. Stevenson HW, Chen C. Literacy acquisition in Peru, Asia, and the United States. In: Wagner DA, Puchner LD,
186
l.A. Garello, D. McIvor loss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
editors. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992;520:174-185. Tefft S. Pakistan faces obstacles. Christian Science Monitor, 1991 (October 28):12. Tyson AS. Lessons from a cave classroom. The Christian Science Monitor, 1992 (April 27):14. Yelis JP. Waste. The UNESCO Courier, 1990 (July);7:30-32.
Wagner DA. World literacy: research policy in the EFA decade. In: Wagner DA, Puchner LD, editors. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992;520:12-26. Walker R. Family literacy, family values. The Christian Science Monitor, 1992 (September 2):19. Wiley 1991. Please supply details.
ELSEVIER
Work 9 (1997) 177-186
Global health issue
World literacy: obstacles and opportunities Judith A. Garello*, Donna Mcivor Joss Occupational Therapy Department, Worcester State College, 486 Chandler St., Worcester, MA 01602, USA
Keywords: Literacy; Women's rights; Human rights
1. Introduction Literacy is commonly defined as a person's ability to read and write, and illiteracy the inability to read and write, but a true understanding of literacy, and illiteracy, is much more complex than such a simple dichotomy implies. For instance, if one is able to write one's own name, but unable to fill out a job application because he or she does not understand the words 'previous' or 'experience', is that person considered literate or illiterate? How much reading and writing ability must one possess before one can be considered literate? Questions such as this gave birth to the term functional literacy. Functional Literacy refers to one's ability to use language skills to cope with every day demands (ILY, 1990). In other words, if one's ability to read and write is so limited that it prevents him or her from functioning in society, e.g. purchasing goods, reading a bus schedule or following instructions on a medicine bottle, then that person is by definition, functionally illiterate. It becomes
* Corresponding author. mail:[email protected]
Fax:
+ 1 508 7938184; e-
apparent that across the globe, literacy runs along a continuum with literacy at one end and illiteracy at the other end. There is a vast region between the two extremes of this continuum in which functional literacy resides. Those who are not literate enough to participate in today's job market are not contributing to the world economy, cost the economy billions of dollars in unemployment and welfare payments, and damages the economy because of the billions of dollars lost each year in unrealized earnings. According to the estimates of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) there are approximately 960 million illiterate adults (age 15 and older) in the world today. In addition, there are 125 million children worldwide that are not enrolled in school, the majority of whom are girls. This paper explores the mission and progress of UNESCOs Education For All 2000 (EFA2000) project, and the global impact of the issues surrounding illiteracy in the world today such as the relationship of female literacy rates and family size, infant mortality, and children's health; literacy and poverty; obstacles to acquiring literacy skills; the extent and impact of functional illiter-
1051-9815/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. PIl SI051-9815(97)00035-1
178
J.A. Garello. D. Mclvor Joss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
acy amongst adults in the developed nations; the impact of multi-lingual societies in countries such as India, China, and Nigeria on the efforts to spread literacy; the impact of illiteracy on communication; the different cultural perspectives regarding the value of literacy; the opportunities available to literate persons; various literacy programs in progress today around the world; the acquisition of literacy; and the difficulties encountered in the development of literacy assessment tools. 2. The distribution of illiteracy Today's illiterate adults are those who never had access to education, were unable to complete their schooling, or those who live in regions in which literacy skills are not used and thus, have relapsed into illiteracy (Lourie, 1990). One woman in three is illiterate and one man in five is illiterate. In industrialized countries illiteracy rates are as high as 20% (Ryan, 1990). Over 95% of the illiterate live in the developing regions of the world: 54% of citizens in Southern Asia are illiterate; 53% in Sub-Saharan Africa; 49% in the Arab States; 24% in Eastern Asia; and Latin America and the Caribbean each have 15% illiteracy rates (ILY, 1990). The highest concentration of totally illiterate individuals are in the most densely populated areas of the world, notably Asia with approximately 700 million, of which 490 million are in China and India. In 1985 it was estimated that of the illiterate population in Africa, 65% of them were women (Lourie, 1990). Industrialized nations face a continuing problem with functional illiteracy: citizens with reading and writing abilities inadequate to cope with everyday demands. In developed nations, between 5 and 20% of adults are functionally illiterate. Although illiteracy has been considered something of the past in developed nations, it has become clear over the past 20 years that this is not the case. 3. Historical perspective of literacy In past generations, reading and writing were
luxury skills, privileges only of those who could afford to pay for schooling, privileges reserved for the elite and powerful. The notion of literacy as a basic human right is a recent one. Literacy, which was once reserved for recording religion and laws, gradually expanded as the growth of commerce and industrialization increased the demands for literacy. Worldwide literacy is a post-WWII phenomenon (ILY, 1990). Many people in the pre-industrial age had to make a living without ever acquiring literacy skills. In an economy that depended on manual labor, it was possible as recently as two generations ago to achieve relative economic success without being literate. People managed daily activities in their shops, communities, and on farms without literacy skills. As public education expanded, training in reading and writing became available to more people. As the world economy developed, business and trade industries began to require the ability to read and comprehend printed material in order to remain competitive in the market. 4. Literacy today Today, especially in the developed countries reading, writing, and comprehension are integral parts of daily life. Reading the newspaper, following written instructions, reading books for pleasure, paying bills, reading street signs, and reading labels on food, clothing, and medications are all parts of daily life that require the comprehension of written material. An individual who does not continue to meet the demands for literacy in a developing society may be a member of the functionally illiterate of future generations. Many factors contribute to illiteracy: inadequate or overcrowded schools; limited access to schools; poor attendance; early pregnancy; high dropout rates; physical and emotional problems; poverty which places the need to work as a priority over education; disadvantaged home environments; cultures that place little value on literacy; and immigrants and refugees who have not mastered the language of their host country. It is important to remember that illiteracy does not preclude knowledge, wisdom, or intelligence.
l.A. Garello, D. Mc/vorloss /Work9 (1997) 177-186
Rather, literacy can be thought of as a key, one which provides access to a storehouse of information and knowledge.
4.1. The EFA 2000 project for world literacy In 1990, 155 nations came together at the World Conference for All in Jomtien, Thailand. The year 1990 was called International Literacy Year (ILY). These nations pledged to take the necessary steps to provide education for all children, and to greatly reduce adult illiteracy by the year 2000. This project is the Education for All (EFA 2000) project. The EFA 2000 project was organized in respons.e to widespread concern over the inadequacy and deterioration of education systems that occurred during the economic crisis of the 1980s, and out of concern for the millions of children and adults worldwide who remain illiterate for various other reasons (EFA Press Kit, June 1996). Presently, progress has been made in many areas such as higher enrollment in primary education, better quality and greater relevance of educational material, and the implementation of volunteer-run adult literacy programs. However, much more needs to be done to achieve the goal of world literacy.
4.2. Literacy and women in the Third World More than 500 million illiterate women live in the rural regions of Third World countries. They live in impoverished rural areas and their days are consumed by the many arduous tasks they engage in as they struggle for the survival and welfare of their families. Lack of time is one of the most serious obstacles to literacy for rural women. The obligations they are confronted with daily leave them little time and energy for educational activities, if the resources for education exist at all (Chlebowska, 1990). Generally, a rural woman begins her day early, around 04.30 and ends it late, around 21.00. During a typical day, a woman in Mali, for example, will fetch water, prepare meals, wash, dress, and feed the children, pound millet, collect vegetables and leaves, wash laundry, go to the market, carry meals to the men on the fields, till, hoe,
179
weed, and plant on the farming plot, gather firewood, collect fruit and nuts, fetch more water, clean the compound, prepare dinner, and spin cotton before she retires for the evening. In many developing countries, literacy skills for women have historically been assigned a low priority compared to other responsibilities. Literacy training for women in developing countries is a relatively recent phenomenon. Although there are literacy classes available in many developing nations, women are not always willing or able to take the time out of their already overburdening day to attend. However, women are more motivated to learn reading and writing when courses include basic knowledge and skills that address their immediate needs and are adapted to their daily existence (Chlebowska, 1990). For example, one woman tells the story of how she was able to save her child's life because she had learned to read and why she now equates literacy with survival. Salaan is a 24-year-old Cambodian woman with a 9-month-old son, Naroi. Naroi was suffering with a terrible bout of diarrhea, a common but devastating illness for children in Third World countries. Many children die of dehydration as a result of diarrhea, but Salaan had learned in a literacy class how to make a rehydration solution. One and a half years prior, she did not know that diarrhea led to dehydration and often death. She had never been to school, could not read or write, and believed that sickness was caused by evil spirits. But Salaan's attendance in literacy classes resulted in her ability to mix up a 6-cent cure which saved her son's life. This is only one example which illustrates the link between a mother's education and the health of her children. In Pakistan and Indonesia the infant mortality rate among children whose mothers have had 4 years of schooling was found to be 50% lower than among children whose mothers were illiterate. Many women in Third World countries cannot read medicine prescriptions or simple health education posters on the importance of breastfeeding, vaccinations, and the preparation of clean food and water (Shimbum, 1990). When the daily needs of the women are addressed in literacy classes, participation is higher. In Bangkok, women are attending literacy classes that teach
180
J.A. Garello, D. McIvor Joss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
skills in health education, housekeeping, and nutrition as well as reading, writing, and basic numeracy. In the context of developing countries, especially in the more rural areas, people are not always confronted with the written word, so familiarity with the alphabet is not considered an urgent need. Generation after generation has grown up by following and respecting oral traditions alone. Incorporating lessons into the literacy classes that can ease their daily struggles yields better results in participation by providing immediate benefits for the women and their families (Chlebowska, 1990). 4.3. Obstacles to literacy for girls in rural Third World countries
The lifestyle and living conditions inherent of the rural regions of Third World countries presents obstacles to acquiring literacy for girls and women. The distance from the school is one of the main obstacles to school attendance. In rural areas where transportation is limited, parents hesitate to send their daughters to a school which they consider too far from their home. If transportation is available, it is rarely free. Parents who are poor either choose not to send their children to school at all, or choose to send only the boys. A recent study in Egypt has shown that the percentage of school attendance when the school was 1 km away was 94% for boys and 72% for girls. When the school was 2 Ian away the attendance was 90% for boys and 64% for girls (Chlebowska, 1990). In Third World countries, parents do not always consider it important for the girls to attend school. It is considered more important for the boys because they will become heads of households themselves and will need to provide for the family. Sending the girls to school is not considered essential, especially when she could be performing household chores that, in the eyes of the parents, are more important. The girls will stay at home and prepare meals, take care of younger siblings, fetch water, pound millet, fetch firewood, and help with farming chores and crafts. Chlebowska'a study (1990) highlights some of the factors which prevent the girls in Third World
Countries from attending school. They vary among different countries, continents, and cultures, but commonly, they are inherent in the institutions and in society at large, or they are determined by the home or the school. In the home, conditions for doing homework are poor. Mothers are often ill, or too tired from a succession of births, to perform many chores, and must rely on the daughters for help. Young girls are too tired to attend school because they are over-worked in the home. Parents do not encourage educational activities because they do not believe that education is compatible with feminine qualities. Parents may not accept mixed classes; parents fearing that their daughter'S reputation will be damaged and she will subsequently lose the opportunity for marriage. In the school, factors which impact negatively on female literacy include unqualified schoolmasters, or ones who take no interest in educating female students, inadequate communication between schoolmasters and parents, parents' fear of sexual misconduct by the schoolmaster, and inadequate primary and secondary schools. 4.4. Obstacles to female literacy in Pakistan
According to Tefft (1991) the biggest obstacles to continuing efforts to spread literacy in feudal Pakistan is the official indifference and opposition from leaders and the tribal elite. Landlords and industrialists in Pakistan do not want to increase literacy in the country because they fear that people will ask for their rights. Based on the 1981 census, only 26.2% of Pakistanis are literate. Among women, only 16% are literate. Public resources concentrate on funding the powerful military, and of the funds that do go towards education, most of it goes to the universities, the domain of the elite. Pakistan's traditional tribal system creates barriers for the girls and women because they are considered the property of men. In some of the more rigid tribes the women are not allowed outside. It is not considered important to educate the women because all they have to do is care for the children and cook. Educators report that Pakistani's are beginning to realize that education is the key to breaking
I.A. Garel/o, D. Mclvorloss /Work 9 (1997) 177-186
the vicious cycle of poverty and social oppression, but there is little sense of urgency. There are literacy programs available in 90 farming villages in Punjab, Pakistan. However, UNICEF reports that fewer than 200000 people per year take advantage of the programs, at that rate Pakistan will need 2 centuries to achieve universal literacy reports Tefft (1991). There are also women who see no advantage to being literate. In fact, in their culture it is considered a disadvantage because a literate woman may not be able to ge,t a husband.
4.5. Acquisition of literacy: rural us. urban In developed nations, people may consider formal education to be the only means of providing literacy skills to children. However, people are products of their environments, and thus learn as a member of a family, or a team; as a worker, a watcher, or a listener. In other words, many paths to literacy can be found in an environment that encourages and supports it. Conversely, illiteracy is found primarily in areas where it is considered acceptable. To clearly understand the problem of illiteracy, it is important to consider some of the environmental forces that influence attitudes and behaviors regarding literacy (Harman, 1987). Most urban children encounter written language every day in road signs, billboards, store window displays, television and newspapers. Perhaps these encounters provide children with the fundamentals of literacy. Children in rural areas of developing countries seldom, if ever, see written language in their daily lives. Perhaps formal schooling is the only means for these children to obtain literacy (Stevenson and Chen, 1992). The acquisition of literacy requires one to interact with a literate environment. This highlights the perception that literate parents will have literate children. It is likely that literate parents will provide a variety of opportunities for children to learn to read. Wagner (1992) reports that these opportunities may not be available in developing countries where many parents are illiterate. A look at the illiteracy problems in Latin America reveals that even if all children enter primary school, many repeat the first year two or
181
three times, and many drop-out before the 4thyear. The children who fail are frequently children from economically marginal rural areas or urban slums. They are children from disadvantaged homes whose basic human needs are not being met adequately. They lack good nutrition, are in poorer health, have less family involvement in literacy activities, and usually have illiterate parents. These children are more dependent on the school to help them become literate, but when they don't get the help that they need in order to succeed, they drop out and remain illiterate. Another factor attributing to the failure of the rural children is their limited exposure to literacy in their home environments. They do not see their parents reading a newspaper, writing a message, or reading instructions for the use of medicine. These sorts of activities convey meaningful information about the social functions of the written word. As a result, these children may see literacy solely as a school activity and remain unaware of it's potential value for any other purpose (Ferreiro, 1992).
4.6. Acquisition of literacy: adults us. children Successful acquisition of literacy is related to addressing the needs of the individual. For example, different approaches must be taken when teaching literacy skills to adult women in developing countries who are trying to provide safe drinking water for their families, and when teaching children to use their imaginations to create a story. There are various programs in use today that address the different approaches to teaching literacy skills to adults and children. In order to eradicate illiteracy, remedial action needs to be directed at adult populations, and preventive action must be taken with children. Primary education for all children is one way to prevent the legacy of illiteracy from continuing from one generation to the next. Adult basic education programs are aimed at students 16 years old and over. Adult basic education teaches literacy while grounding the adult student in survival skills related to his or her immediate needs.
182
J.A. Garello, D. Mcivor Joss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
4. Z The family and literacy acquisition
Parents are children's first teachers. Children who see their parents engaging in activities that require literacy, e.g. writing letters, paying bills, and reading newspapers, are more motivated to take on literacy activities themselves. Children whose parents read books with them and engage them in other literacy activities have a better understanding of the importance of literacy skills. Unfortunately, there are many parents who lack literacy skills themselves. These parents may leave it up to the school system to meet all of the educational needs of the child. These children begin school with a disadvantage, because prior to entering school they have not received the message that literacy has important social and economic functions (Walker, 1992). Children's early experiences shape their attitudes. Early positive experiences associated with reading will foster a positive attitude regarding the value of literacy. The infant cradled in mother's arms while she reads a story learns that reading is a comfortable experience and that words and pictures are good. There is evidence that even in the most depressed economic conditions, whether the child becomes a reader or not, strongly depends upon a role model who sets an example early in life (Staiger, 1990). 4.8. Cultural perspectives regarding the value of literacy It is important to realize that not all groups of people around the world value literacy equally. A report published in the UNESCO Education News in May of 1996 indicates that in Chile, 45% of the women said they did not need to be literate. Jauregui (1996) reports that many women in Chile felt that they were good housewives and that being literate was not necessary in order to be a good housewife. Many people around the world have been following oral traditions and see no immediate need to be literate. A society where towns have only one main street and all merchants do business on a first-name basis does not require a citizen to understand how to use maps,
telephone books, or a public transportation system. In groups that attach no importance to literacy, illiterate persons may not be socially or economically disadvantaged within their own community (Harmon, 1987). 4.9. Illiteracy, exclusion, and communication
Lourie (1990) views illiteracy as a form of exclusion. In a culturally diverse society, this exclusion needs to be viewed in a social context. Entire societies may be unable to communicate with people in other communities because they lack the means to effectively exchange information. Literacy increases the ability to communicate, which facilitates cultural expression. Literacy can enhance communication across cultural lines, and help people to organize societies to promote the unity of people with common goals (Lourie, 1990). 4.10. Literacy in China
China has made some progress in recent years towards reducing illiteracy among adults by implementing various literacy programs. However, much needs to be done to address the problem of illiteracy among the children, especially in the countryside. According to Tyson (1992), there are more than 180 million people, one out of five, who are illiterate in China. Over 90% of them live in rural areas. In the early 1980s the state turned over the responsibility for funding local education to the counties, townships, and villages. In poverty-stricken villages in the north-western provinces, many cannot afford to pay for school for their children. Parents struggling with survival while living in poverty are putting their children to work in the fields as early as possible. Many remote villages do not have schools and the classrooms that do exist are considered dangerous and ready to collapse. The conditions inside the classrooms are cold, dark, dusty, with a limited supply of desks, stools, and books. For the 9 million primary and secondary school teachers, wages are low, morale of the teachers is poor, and resignation rates are high. From the radical cultural revolution between 1966 and 1976,
l.A. Garello, D. McIvor loss / Work 9 (1997) 177-]86
there is lingering political discrimination against teachers. Tyson (1992) reports that teachers are often attacked by angry students and parents. 4.11. Literacy in industrialized countries
In industrialized countries, literacy is considered a skill that everyone acquires, especially since schooling in these countries is generally compulsory and free. It would seem almost inconceivable that a person who has attended school for many years should be unable to read and write, especially in societies where exposure to the written word is a part of everyday life. Yet, in the early 1970s illiteracy became an important public issue in industrialized countries. In 1972, the British Association of Settlements, a small charitable organization reported that between 7 and 10% of British adolescents were barely able to read simple text when they left school, and that there were approximately 2 million illiterate people in the United Kingdom, not including immigrants (Velis, 1990). More recently, among the industrialized countries the percent of adults with who were totally illiterate or had minimal literacy skills in 1995 ranged from 7.5% in Sweden, 10.5% in the Netherlands, 14/4% in Germany, 16.6% in Canada, 20.7% in the United States and 42.6% in Poland (Press Kit, 1996). Velis (1990) considers the economic impact of functional illiteracy in developed countries significant because industrialized countries attempt to continually improve their ability to compete in the global economy. As technology advances, demands for higher skills increase. The less skilled employees are often the ones who lose their jobs when companies downsize. With limited literacy skills, they find it difficult to secure employment elsewhere, and they may join the ranks of the unemployed who need public financial assistance. Thus, functional illiteracy in industrialized countries is expensive for the individual as well as the nation, and ultimately weakens the country's competitiveness in the world economic market (Velis, 1990). 5. Literacy assessment
There is a need for reliable and valid quantita-
183
tive measurement instruments in order to establish baseline literacy data, track progress in efforts to improve literacy, and to determine the relative effectiveness of literacy programs. The difficulty in defining literacy makes development of valid measurement tools difficult as well. There are three major assessment approaches: self-assessment, surrogate measures, and direct measures. Self-assessed literacy, where individuals rate their own reading and writing abilities, has been used by the United States Census since the 1850s. The accuracy of self-report data regarding literacy levels may be limited. Surrogate measures consider the number of years of schooling that were completed to be the determining factor regarding literacy abilities. These too are inaccurate measures because years of schooling vary in their level of effectiveness regarding literacy. Direct tests are preferable if the resources exist to administer them. Some examples of direct tests are: the Adult Performance Level (APL); the English Language Proficiency Survey (ELPS); and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) literacy survey (Wiley, 1991). Direct measures must also be specific to the situation, population, and environment and must be culturally appropriate. 5.1. Literacy volunteers of America (LVA)
Literacy volunteers of America is a program used throughout the United States that functions mainly as a volunteer tutoring service. LVA methods incorporate the students own language pattern to help that student learn to read. For example, a student will tell a story and the LVA tutor will write up the story and ask the student to read it back. Thus the student learns to read his or her own words first. LVA also uses traditional reading techniques, such as sound and sight words. LVA tutors are trained to try a variety of methods and use what works best for the individual. 5.2. The retired senior volunteer program (RSVP)
The Retired Senior Volunteer Program (RSVP) is a literacy program directed at providing oneon-one tutoring to adults, age 18 and over. The
184
J.A. Carella, D. Mcivor Joss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
services are provided by senior citizens who have volunteered as tutors and have completed the required training program. Sessions are held at many public places such as libraries, churches, schools, community centers, as well as in the home of the tutor or student. Sessions are scheduled at times and places that are convenient for the student in order to increase enrollment and retention. 5.3. Frontier college: students for literacy at the University of Toronto
Frontier College literacy program is a nonprofit, student-run organization. This program offers the development of skills in basic literacy, numeracy, and English as a second language to adults and children in secondary and elementary school. Tutoring sessions are held for a minimum of 3 h per week. 5.4. Thailand
The Hill Areas Education (HAE) project, initially funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is a community based project that provides primary education for children and literacy classes for adults using a curriculum that is sensitive to the needs and cultures of Thailand's six main hill tribes. Since 1980, the project has expanded from covering 45 villages to reaching 600 villages in 1995. It is supported by several non-government organizations working in the hill tribes communities. Approximately 500000 hill people live in these small villages throughout northern and central Thailand. Many do not speak Thai, or have citizenship because they originated from China, Myanmar, and Laos. In 1976, the Thai government decided to integrate the hill tribes into the Thai state and allow them full rights to practice their religion and maintain their culture. The RAE project offers the most widespread form of education available to the adults and children inhabiting these rugged, mountainous regions where villages can often be reached only by foot (Guttman, 1995). The teacher's are expected to learn the local
language, teach the children by day and the adults by night. The teacher is also expected to deal with health problems, act as liaison with government agencies, be a full-time community development worker, and help the villages to initiate projects. The learning center, which is built out of bamboo, wood and grass, serves as a community meeting spot and is also the teachers home. Teacher salaries are equal to those of formal primary school teachers, but they receive no financial compensation such as sick leave, and they receive no medical insurance. It is understandable that the rate of turnover for teachers is high. Teachers often see this job as a way to become a government official (Guttman, 1995). Students who complete the RAE program receive a primary school certificate and can take an equivalency exam to enable them to continue in the formal school system. Although many students do not complete the program, the community as a whole has benefited from it's existence. There is a better awareness about cleanliness, the environment, and drug use. Those that have attended HAE classes are reported to be more expressive and outgoing. One village headman reports that the villagers realize that it is important for the children to learn the Thai language and to read, write, and communicate so that they can travel safely. There are still many villages that remain excluded from any form of education. It is being proposed that the HAE project be expanded to reach 2700 villages and expand secondary education in the hill areas with a program aimed at the recruitment of new teachers (Guttman, 1995). 5.5. China
The Xu an Wei Skills-Based Literacy Program for Women was established in the rural area of Xuan Wei county with a focus on the problems of rural women who have little or no education. There are 75 different training classes available. The women are advised on which ones may best suit their situation, but the women choose their own classes. The classes include other skills necessary for the improvement of living standards such as pre- and post-natal care, health care,
IA. Garello, D. McIvor loss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
family planning and income generating skills. The women of Xuan Wei, typical of many rural women, have very demanding days with little time for rest. Initially the literacy project met with some resistance stemming from the concepts of women's roles and male superiority. Many men objected to their wives or daughters attending classes when there was work to do in the home. Women had accepted their inferior status and did not think they should be educated. As education had for so long been seen as a privilege exclusive to men, the women had to be convinced that they could learn and that they would not be wasting their time because they would learn useful work practices and boost their productivity on their farms (Aksornkool, 1995). By linking literacy with actual production, the project's value was soon realized. More and more women want their children to get a good education. In the past, only the men would make the decisions regarding the children, farming, and education. The Xuan Wei program has empowered rural women to realize that they too are capable of learning, being productive and making money (Aksornkool, 1995). Presently, the Xuan Wei program has brought 36000 women out of illiteracy and the illiteracy rate among young girls has dropped. One young villager remembers how she used to get lost in the streets of Kunming because she couldn't read the signs. Today she has a small shop and sells clothes, feels much more capable, and is aware of other possibilities for her future (Aksornkool, 1995).
6. Conclusion
Those who are not literate enough to participate in today's job market cannot contribute to the world economy. In industrialized nations, their cost to the economies of their countries is billions of dollars in unemployment and welfare payments, as well as billions of dollars lost each year in unrealized earnings. The illiterate do survive: they grow up, play, sing, marry, have children, build homes and huts, buy and sell, and they develop an understanding for life. However, they are undeniably disadvantaged in relation to the
185
other 2.5 billion adults who can read and write. They are excluded from contributing to the worldwide accumulation of written knowledge, history, and culture and from learning from it. literacy may be the key to allow people to develop independence in learning, seeking information, making choices and acting on their future. literacy is a human right and an imperative to national development. It provides a way of mobilizing the mind, so that people may combat poverty, deprivation and injustice. Illiteracy is an immense global problem. World literacy would make it possible for people to communicate internationally on all levels so that the global problems regarding health, environment, natural resources, and many other issues can be confronted. Fortunately there are mechanisms in place to increase the number of literate people in the world. The cooperation of individuals, communities, governments, non-government organizations and international agencies is needed to strengthen the literacy efforts and bring the opportunity for literacy to all. References Aksomkool N. Daughters of the earth. Paris: UNESCO, 1995. Chlebowska K. Literacy for rural women in the third world. Paris: UNESCO, 1990. Ferreiro E. Children's literacy and public schools in Latin America. In: Wagner DA, Puchner LD, editors. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992;520: 143-150. Guttman C. From the Thai hills. EFA 2000, 1995 (Jan-Mar);n18:7. Harman D. Illiteracy: a national dilemma. New York: Cambridge, 1987. ILY. ILY: year of opportunity. Paris: UNESCO, 1990. Jauregui ML. Chile: new report on women's literacy. UNESCO Education News, 1996;n5:3. Lourie S. World literacy: where we stand today. The UNESCO Courier, 1990 (July);7:13-14, 18-20. Press Kit. Education for all: achieving the goal. Paris: UNESCO, 1996 (June). Ryan J. From rhetoric to reality. The UNESCO Courier, 1990 (July);7:10-12. Shimbum Y. Literacy means survival. The Challenge, 1990;1:4-5. Staiger RC. The road to reading. The UNESCO Courier, 1990; (July);7:37-40. Stevenson HW, Chen C. Literacy acquisition in Peru, Asia, and the United States. In: Wagner DA, Puchner LD,
186
l.A. Garello, D. McIvor loss / Work 9 (1997) 177-186
editors. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992;520:174-185. Tefft S. Pakistan faces obstacles. Christian Science Monitor, 1991 (October 28):12. Tyson AS. Lessons from a cave classroom. The Christian Science Monitor, 1992 (April 27):14. Yelis JP. Waste. The UNESCO Courier, 1990 (July);7:30-32.
Wagner DA. World literacy: research policy in the EFA decade. In: Wagner DA, Puchner LD, editors. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992;520:12-26. Walker R. Family literacy, family values. The Christian Science Monitor, 1992 (September 2):19. Wiley 1991. Please supply details.
