Distinguishing between life-span education and lifelong learning, this paper addresses the meaning, value and various uses of education throughout life from the perspective of gerontology and adult education, with emphasis on the relationship to development throughout adulthood.
Life-Span Education and Gerontology1 David A. Peterson, PhD:
are currently available (Ecklund, 1969).
Educational institutions as well as other community agencies are beginning to be involved in the development and conduct of educational programs for the middle and later years of life. A real interest in providing life-span education
within existing community institutions is being fostered in numerous locations. Although this development is far from complete, it is encouraging to see clear movement in this direction. 1. Position Paper No. 3. 2. Director, Gerontology Program, College of Public Affairs and Community Services, Univ. of Nebraska at Omaha, 68101.
436
At the same time, it has been amply demonstrated that people at any age retain the ability to learn in an efficient enough manner so that planned learning is a viable medium for individual change (Baltes & Labouvie, 1973; Botwinick, 1973; Jarvik & Cohen, 1973). It is upon this basis that the support for life-span education is built. The purpose of this position paper is to indicate the value of life-span education for the individual in American society. A continuity of life will be assumed and an underlying belief will be that accommodation to later life is facilitated by successful adaptation in earlier stages. This paper will review the meaning and uses of life-span education, will point out some of the reasons for its development at this particular time, and will provide a brief review of appropriate programming at various life stages. The emphasis throughout will be to show the relationship of education to development throughout life, especially the later years. Life-Span Education The belief that education has relevance over the entire life-span is not new. Many years ago, Homer, Socrates, and Jesus concentrated their teaching efforts on persons in the mature years. It may be inferred from their actions that understanding was a process emphasized in the middle and later years leading toward some ultimate goal at or beyond the end of life itself. Adult education only appears new in the context of contemporary American education with its emphasis on socialization and preparation of the child for adulthood. A look at the enrollment and expenditure of funds for education makes this obvious. Elementary and secondary expenditures for 1972-1973 were $51.9 billion for enrollment of
The Gerontologist
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The continuation of education throughout life is a relatively new concept in American education. Although the idea itself is not new, it is only recently that educational institutions have directed their efforts toward the person who is over the age of twenty-two or who has received the degrees necessary for successful economic sufficiency. Preparation during the pre-adult yeaib no longer suffices to adequately equip the typical adult for either the vocational or adjustment needs which are likely to develop over the course of the life-span (Hesburgh, Miller, & Wharton, 1973). An alternate approach is needed which takes a longer view of educational development; this view must relate to current and future needs and to the contemporary store of information and methodology, to that the individual will not only acquire preparation for life, but also gain the skills needed to adapt to change. For this to happen, it will be necessary for the individual to develop an appreciation for both the intrinsic and extrinsic values of learning. The skills needed are those required in the pursuit of individual learning-that is, the location and use of many diverse sources of information which
October 1975
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are not. A similar term, lifelong learning, has 45,753,000. Higher education expenditures come into widespread use both in the fields of were $23.4 billion for 9,214,860 students adult education and-aging in the past few years. (Grant & Lind, 1974). Federal expenditures for It refers to learning that occurs throughout life Adult Basic Education (ABE) were $.05 billion and emphasizes the need for continuing infor an enrollment of 812,023 in 1971-72 tellectual stimulation for optimum functioning. (National Advisory Council on Adult Education, Life-span education includes a number of com1973). Although the ABE total does not ponents—a student, a curriculum, instructional represent all the adult education enrollments, it aids, and an organization to provide the supis clear that in both enrollment and dollars export base for bringing the items together. pended, adult education is not a priority. Education, then, is a social activity including at This is not to suggest that the literature of least two people and is based upon a plan identhe past 50 years has excluded educational intifying the end toward which the student is terest in adults, for clearly it has not. However, progressing. this interest has centered primarily on the remedial use of education to bring the foreignLifelong learning, like life-span education, born and those lacking any formal schooling may include a planned process of interaction, closer to the mainstream of society and the but may be much less structured. Learning is economy. Federal and state funds for adult change of behavior which may result from education even into the 1970s have been conmaturation, individual experience, insight, or centrated on basic education, high school comstudy. It is not necessarily a result of formal pletion, and vocational preparation. Some education or a social undertaking but may be educators have called upon educational inindividualistic. Learning doubtless occurs often stitutions to move decisively into the arena of and regularly throughout adulthood. It is difeducation for adults of all ages at all levels of inficult to imagine moving through the course of struction (Ecklund, 1969; McClusky, 1970; life without learning. However, this learning Frank, 1955). Numerous educational needs of may be in opposition to previous learning, or adults have been identified and a wide variety may well be inaccurate or irrelevant to the inof programmatic goals have been specified, but dividual. Lifelong learning is such an alla limited amount of actual programming has encompassing concept that it is nearly imbeen undertaken to date. possible to use in any discussion of education in the adult years. Life-span education denotes the type of educational programming which is conEducational Institutions and Life-Span ceptually based on the data provided by lifespan psychologists. It focuses attention on the Education lifelong process of human development and It is becoming increasingly apparent to emphasizes education as an intervention higher education that its responsibility does not mechanism to maximize functioning. Life-sparT^ end with the preparation of children and youth education has much in common with the field for adult roles. Consequently, public and of adult and continuing education which is private educational institutions as well as comcharacterized by a tremendous diversity of" munity organizations and business enterprises philosophical and psychological positions \ are entering the area of life-span education. (Sheats, 1970). At the same time, life-span ( Birren and Woodruff's (1973) excellent papery education is more focused. It may be viewed as \relating the research and concepts of life-span a planned series of activities undertaken by an ^development to education suggests reasons individual throughout his life which by Dy in- /why life-span education has become necessary creasing his knowledge, improving his skills, in recent years. They include, in part, a and modifying his attitudes, will facilitate his changing age structure of society, an inadjustment to the societal and individual creasing educational level (and subsequent inchanges which affect him. Although other in- terest in education) of aging cohorts, the stitutions have been involved, colleges and rapidity of social change, career pattern universities have been in the forefront of the changes, the expanding roles of women, and life-span education movement. changed attitudes toward education. It will be noted that the definition of life-span It is probably not incidental that the growing education places emphasis on a planned series awareness of life-span education comes at a of activities. This emphasis distinguishes be- time when many educational institutions find tween those which are incidental to the pur- their traditional support bases eroding. The poseful educational process and those which declines and disciplinary shifts within un-
These contemporary events have led educational institutions to devote increasing at-
tention to the nontraditional student — the adult, the mid-career person, the woman reentering the job market, the person preparing for retirement, and the individual with extensive amounts of leisure. Both the needs of the individuals and those of the institutions are focusing education on new consumers with the resultant shift in institutional programs. The role of the institution, as well as that of the academic gerontologist, in formulating the appropriate institutional responses for program development has been delineated in the preceding position paper by Spinetta and Hickey. Content and Emphasis of Education
Life-Span
An attempt will be made here to suggest at least a few points in the life-span when education will have unusual value. Although there are doubtless innumerable conceptualizations of the content that can be made, for purposes of brevity and relevance only three areas will be dealt with-vocational preparation and development, leisure time anticipation and usage, and attitude toward aging and old age. (V Vocational Preparation and Development Educational institutions today are heavily oriented toward vocational subjects. The secondary schools' traditional preparation programs are of concern to life-span education due primarily to the expectations they raise in the individual. Too many graduates believe acquisition of skills in school will assure success in work life. Although education has intrinsic value to the individual, it may not be the key to advancement in all vocational fields (W.E. Upjohn Institute, 1972). Too often, persons believe that their vocational education will permanently equip them to meet their employment responsibilities. This discourages typical workers from seeking to update and improve their skills. Many seem to lapse into a lengthy state of educational somnolence disturbed only when job changes displace or modify the position of the individual. Frequently, this is too late to prepare for necessary accommodations without a stressful period of un- or under-employment. This situation could be remedied by facilitating the development of a different attitude and by periodic skill upgrading. A positive attitude toward life-span vocational education can have great usefulness to those
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dergraduate enrollments and a population growth pattern which will reduce the magnitude of elementary and secondary education in the coming years encourage educational institutions to seek alternatives. • Not many years ago it was fashionable to anticipate continuing growth of school population. However, elementary and secondary enrollments are now declining regularly, with the latter projected to drop by one million students in the 1970s (National Center of Educational Statistics, 1972). This decrease is leading to other avenues of programming for public schools, increasing their interest in adult programs. Declining enrollments are a common occurrence at private and public colleges in the last few years. The "emerging" state colleges which grew so rapidly in the 1960s have been hardest hit. While 1973 enrollments rose 4.2% at public universities and 9.4% in public 2-year colleges, state college enrollment declined by 2%. The midwest and great plains felt the heaviest decline with up to a 10% decrease in state college enrollment (Scully, 1974). Reduced enrollments, of course, are not unrelated to the financial problems in numerous colleges today. Colleges and universities are faced with rapidly increasing costs, hesitant legislatures, reduced private support and federal aid. This is leading to reductions of faculty and staff and the demise of numerous small private institutions (Witkowski, 1974). To ease the problems of a declining student body, many state colleges and universities have begun to develop a series of alternatives to traditional programs —especially the education of teachers. The -Cainegie Commission on Higher Education has encouraged colleges in this movement and'"has suggested expanding the age of the normal student body to include both younger and older students (Scully, 1973). This movement coincides with the interest which older people have in subjects that are instrumental in meeting the challenges which occur in old age (Hiemstra, 1972). It also comes at a time when many of the programs designed to serve the aging are demanding personnel with specific skills in providing direct service such as counseling, recreation, nutrition, education, advocacy, and planning for older people. Consequently, institutions of higher education have begun to design and conduct such programs as a response both to general needs and to those of the field of aging.
October 1975
post-training employment, income, and reduction in dependency, thus tending to offset ageism in our society (Somers, 1966). Preparation for retirement from the lifelong vocation is another point at which life-span education can play a meaningful role. Although preretirement education programs vary greatly, most place the primary emphasis on either assisting people to plan better for their later life (planning) or facilitating adjustment to the retirement situation (counseling). In a review of the limited amount of research available, Kasschau (1974) concludes that the planning function is generally more successfully fulfilled by preretirement education programs than is the counseling function. Unfortunately, however, those individuals who are experiencing the greatest problems in later life are the ones least likely to really do any serious planning. Education, then, is available to and accepted by those who have the greatest likelihood of succeeding without it. This problem notwithstanding, life-span education has a significant role to play in the vocational life of the individual if it can be developed and implemented from early school experiences through the final stages of retirement. (2) Leisure Time Preparation and Usage The amount of discretionary time available to the average American has increased steadily over this century, and while perhaps not expanding as rapidly as earlier predictions would have indicated, it has nonetheless altered the balance between work and leisure. Today's worker spends less than 40 hours/week on the job compared to over 60 hours for his grandfather; and he enjoys annual paid holidays, vacation, and sick days—frequently equivalent to as much as one full month. Moreover, the period of retirement he can expect to have is as much as 10 years. The use of this extensive amount of leisure time is a significant variable in determining the quality of the individual's life. It is predicted by some that the amount of leisure time will continue to expand in the future. With "provision of material needs and related services assured, the desire for growing material affluence is gradually displaced by concern for psychic and social enrichment in non-work settings" (Johnston, 1972). Contrary to this prediction, another approach is to assume a work ethic which equates leisure with frivolity and waste and to conclude that new jobs and increased productivity with con-
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whose adult lives are not completely employment oriented. Women, for instance, who leave the work role to raise a family and return a number of years later, are finding both the requirement and helpfulness of continuing education as a way of exploring changes in the field as well as upgrading outdated skills. A positive attitude toward this process facilitates successful re-entry into the job world. A second point in the vocational cycle where education seems particularly appropriate occurs in the middle years of the occupation. It involves a view of a "career clock" in which the individual judges to what extent he is ahead, behind, or on time with his expectations and with the role models he has adopted (Kimmel, 1974). Education may be appropriate at this time to help the individual orient his activities toward one specific area, or to assist him in retraining for a change that must be made for personal reasons. Another point in the vocational cycle where life-span education may be useful is in the preparation for and movement to a second career. A recent study has shown that 5/4 million Americans changed occupations in a recent year; 40% of these were over 35 years of age (Kelleher, 1973). Some persons may have been "pushed" by dissatisfaction, technological change, and low productivity from a previous position; many others find themselves "pulled" toward new opportunities. Training is a significant part of this process, for if the individual acquires new skills, he generally seeks out the opportunity to use them. Change of employment late in the vocational career is another point at which life-span education can play a part. A small percentage of the older population wish to find employment even though they may be viewed by others as having reached retirement age. Although the self-employed and professionals are able to continue working after normal retirement age, others find their lifelong vocational area terminated and turn to alternatives. This situation poses what may be the most difficult problem for life-span educators, since education may still be unable to overcome the widespread discrimination faced by older persons seeking employment. It is Somers' conclusion from his review of various retraining efforts that age, education, and training status have some independent influence on employment rates. Each seems to have the power to offset some of the others. Consequently, older workers who have been retrained have fared well from the standpoint of
die age to later life. Over-all, then, life-span education has much to offer in the way of preparation for the use of leisure and can appropriately be used for this prupose throughout life. (3) Attitude Toward Aging This paper concludes with a discussion of the relationship of life-span education to one of the most salient components of the gerontological literature. Less specific, but certainly no less important to the facilitation of satisfactory adjustment to the process of aging, is the role that life-span education can play in the development of a positive attitude toward the aging process. It is neither appropriate to deny the aging process and attempt to stay young forever nor to unquestioningly accept the negative stereotypes of aging and become "old" when physiological or psychological processes do not require it. Aging is normal and universal, but it does not mean that the enjoyment or scope of life must be drastically constricted at any point in the chronological process. Many Americans, however, fear aging and attempt to deny that it is happening to them. By the time a child enters formal schooling he has generally adopted a set of negative perceptions regarding older people. Only through a conscious and planned process of re-education can these unconsciously acquired negative attitudes be modified to the extent necessary to allow the individual to relate well to older people and to his feelings about his own aging process. Specific programs and units in our elementary, secondary, and higher education institutions could be designed to modify these negative attitudes by providing both cognitive and experiential input. At the elementary school level attemps need to be made to include some instruction on the process of aging and older people. Because children at that age are not likely to exhibit interest in the later part of their lives, attention will need to be focused on their parents, grandparents, and other older people in such a way that an understanding of the process of aging, use of leisure, and social programs directed to the needs of older people is acquired. At the secondary school level, the understanding and positive attitude toward the aging process may be approached through family life courses which seek to provide an awareness of the contemporary family and social structure as it affects those who are older. These educational activities are begin-
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commitant hours of employment will result. Whether people work because of some ingrained belief in its value or because of the dollars and purchasing power it brings, there is now taking place a major transformation in the relative importance of work and nonwork, a gradual reunification where work is more humanized and leisure more closely associated with productivity. This integration and the accompanying individual and social strain provides an opportunity for life-span educators to assist persons in preparation for and use of leisure time. Interest in the productive use of leisure time seems to be important throughout life. Although interests may be developed at any point in life, most are acquired early and are continued over the course of the life-span with increasing complexity and differentation occurring as skill and knowledge are gained. Thus, continuing education programs in both schools and other community agencies have taken seriously the development of skills and interests in a wide variety of nonvocational topics in the adult population generally. In most areas, however, educational institutions have not found it financially feasible to offer leisure interest pursuits in any form beyond the introductory stage. Advanced courses are rarely included for those whose appetite is whetted by the initial offering. Until such time as funds are available for general adult education programming, it is not reasonable to expect that diverse and in-depth programming will occur. In later adulthood, leisure time takes on a different and urgent meaning for many persons. The beginning withdrawal of ego involvement from employment which some people evidence as they reach middle age provides the opportunity for energy to be transferred to the leisure area rather than continuing to be concentrated in the vocation. This can become a time of deepening involvement in previous leisure pursuits and another opportunity to acquire new interests-ones which may be especially appropriate for middle and later life. Active athletic pursuits may give way to those with more limited physical strain, and those areas which at one point in life seemed too expensive may be found to be within the limits of the family budget. It is this period that may be the most meaningful in developing the leisure pursuits which will carry into retirement. Generally, persons do not begin a whole new way of life at the end of their work career, but rather there is continuity of behavior from mid-
October 1975
disposition toward aging is one of the most comprehensive and necessary functions of lifespan education, and a fitting conclusion to this position paper. References
Baltes, P., & Labouvie, G. Adult development in intellectual performance: Description, explanation, and modification. In C. Eisdorfer & M. Lawton (Eds.), The psychology of adult development and aging. American Psychological Assn., Washington, 1973. Birren, J., & Woodruff, D. Human development over the life span through education. In P. Baltes & K. Schaie (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology. Academic Press, New York, 1973. Botwinick, J. Aging and behavior. Springer, New York, 1973. Ecklund, L. Aging and the field of education. In M. Riley, J. lme7T& M. Johnson (Eds.), Aging and society, Vol. II. Russell Sage, New York, 1969. Frank, L Education for aging. In W. Donahue (Ed.), ~ Education for later maturity. Whiteside, New York, 1955. Grant, W., & Lind, C. Digest of educational statistics, 1973, USDHEW. USGPO, Washington, 1974. Hesburgh, T., Miller, P., & Wharton, C. Patterns of life long learning. Jossey Bass, San Francisco, 1973. Hiemstra, R. Continuing education for the aged: A survey of needs and interests of older people. Adult Education, 1972,22, 100-109. Jarvik, L, & Cohen, D. A biobehavioral approach to intellectual changes with aging. In C. Eisdorfer & M. Lawton (Eds.), The Psychology of adult development and aging. American Psychological Assn., Washington, 1973. -\Johnston, D^Jlhe-future"' of- wor.k.:_Ihree possible alter^nttwes-~lvfonth/y Labor Review, US Dept. Labor, Wash,iflgto.Q,,_May, 1972. Kasschau, P. Reevaluating the need for preretirement education. IndustrialGerontology, 1974,1, in.s.), 42-59. Kelleher, C. Second careers - a growing trend. Industrial Gerontology, 1973, No. 17, 1,8. Kimmel, D. Adulthood and aging. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1974. McCluskx^ J- White House Conference on Aging background paper on education. USGPO, Washington, 1970. National Advisory Council on Adult Education, Washington Annual Report, Mar, 1973. National Center for Educational Statistics. Projections of educational statistics to 1981-82. Off. of Education, USDHEW. USGPO, Washington, 1972. Scully, M. Carnegie panel asks colleges to alter admission patterns, take more adults, transfers. Chronicle of Higher Education, 1973,7, 1,4. Scully, M. State colleges lose ground in enrollments. Chronicle of Higher Education, 1974,(9, 1,7. Sheats, P. Introduction. In R. Smith, G. Aker, & J. Kidd, (Eds.), Handbook of adult education. Macmillan, . New York, 1970. Somers, G. Retraining the unemployed older worker. In J. Kreps (Ed.), Technology, manpower, and retirement policy. World Publishing, Cleveland, 1966. W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Report of a special task force to the Secretary of HEW, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1972. Witkowski, E. The economy and the university: Economic aspects of declining enrollments. Journal of Higher Education, 1974,45, 48-60.
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ning to occur as a result of some teacher training workshops. Concern at present, however, focuses on the attitudes which public school teachers have about the aging process and the extent to which they may convey inaccurate stereotypes about older people rather than actually helping to reverse student negativism. Until most teachers undergo a change in their views, it is unrealistic to expect any significant improvement in the attitude held by teenagers. At the undergraduate level, a variety of subject matter may be used to stimulate an awareness of the cultural, biological, social, and psychological concommitants of aging, and to identify personal and community goals which may be sought during the latter part of life. Student involvement in community programs and institutions can be encouraged in order to gain personal, realistic, and positive acquaintances with older individuals. During adulthood there are several approaches to life-span educational needs as they apply to attitudes toward aging. Public school and higher educational institutions may provide information on contributions of older people, on understanding physiological changes that occur in middle life, on ways of assisting parents who become infirm, on service roles and community programs and on the social adjustments throughout life. It would appear that little of this is currently taking place and that middle age has become a time when institutions and community agencies emphasize the pursuit of leisure if they program for this clientele. As people approach retirement there is great need for educational activities designed to foster a positive attitude toward later life. Preparation for retirement programs, of course, make this a key element, assuming that with increased knowledge and more realistic expectations of retirement, a happier and healthier individual will result. Even after retirement itself, it is still appropriate to provide educational experiences designed to continue positive, attitudes toward aging. Most older people have an intense interest in the changes that they see in themselves and their cohort. Later life may be a time for turning inward, of concern for health, of consciously reduced life space; but it is also a time when knowledge may help one to understand the similarity of situations and the support that may come from other's knowledge. Thus, the development and continuation of accurate knowledge and a positive
Life-Span Education and Gerontology1 David A. Peterson, PhD:
are currently available (Ecklund, 1969).
Educational institutions as well as other community agencies are beginning to be involved in the development and conduct of educational programs for the middle and later years of life. A real interest in providing life-span education
within existing community institutions is being fostered in numerous locations. Although this development is far from complete, it is encouraging to see clear movement in this direction. 1. Position Paper No. 3. 2. Director, Gerontology Program, College of Public Affairs and Community Services, Univ. of Nebraska at Omaha, 68101.
436
At the same time, it has been amply demonstrated that people at any age retain the ability to learn in an efficient enough manner so that planned learning is a viable medium for individual change (Baltes & Labouvie, 1973; Botwinick, 1973; Jarvik & Cohen, 1973). It is upon this basis that the support for life-span education is built. The purpose of this position paper is to indicate the value of life-span education for the individual in American society. A continuity of life will be assumed and an underlying belief will be that accommodation to later life is facilitated by successful adaptation in earlier stages. This paper will review the meaning and uses of life-span education, will point out some of the reasons for its development at this particular time, and will provide a brief review of appropriate programming at various life stages. The emphasis throughout will be to show the relationship of education to development throughout life, especially the later years. Life-Span Education The belief that education has relevance over the entire life-span is not new. Many years ago, Homer, Socrates, and Jesus concentrated their teaching efforts on persons in the mature years. It may be inferred from their actions that understanding was a process emphasized in the middle and later years leading toward some ultimate goal at or beyond the end of life itself. Adult education only appears new in the context of contemporary American education with its emphasis on socialization and preparation of the child for adulthood. A look at the enrollment and expenditure of funds for education makes this obvious. Elementary and secondary expenditures for 1972-1973 were $51.9 billion for enrollment of
The Gerontologist
Downloaded from http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ at Athabasca University on June 5, 2016
The continuation of education throughout life is a relatively new concept in American education. Although the idea itself is not new, it is only recently that educational institutions have directed their efforts toward the person who is over the age of twenty-two or who has received the degrees necessary for successful economic sufficiency. Preparation during the pre-adult yeaib no longer suffices to adequately equip the typical adult for either the vocational or adjustment needs which are likely to develop over the course of the life-span (Hesburgh, Miller, & Wharton, 1973). An alternate approach is needed which takes a longer view of educational development; this view must relate to current and future needs and to the contemporary store of information and methodology, to that the individual will not only acquire preparation for life, but also gain the skills needed to adapt to change. For this to happen, it will be necessary for the individual to develop an appreciation for both the intrinsic and extrinsic values of learning. The skills needed are those required in the pursuit of individual learning-that is, the location and use of many diverse sources of information which
October 1975
437
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are not. A similar term, lifelong learning, has 45,753,000. Higher education expenditures come into widespread use both in the fields of were $23.4 billion for 9,214,860 students adult education and-aging in the past few years. (Grant & Lind, 1974). Federal expenditures for It refers to learning that occurs throughout life Adult Basic Education (ABE) were $.05 billion and emphasizes the need for continuing infor an enrollment of 812,023 in 1971-72 tellectual stimulation for optimum functioning. (National Advisory Council on Adult Education, Life-span education includes a number of com1973). Although the ABE total does not ponents—a student, a curriculum, instructional represent all the adult education enrollments, it aids, and an organization to provide the supis clear that in both enrollment and dollars export base for bringing the items together. pended, adult education is not a priority. Education, then, is a social activity including at This is not to suggest that the literature of least two people and is based upon a plan identhe past 50 years has excluded educational intifying the end toward which the student is terest in adults, for clearly it has not. However, progressing. this interest has centered primarily on the remedial use of education to bring the foreignLifelong learning, like life-span education, born and those lacking any formal schooling may include a planned process of interaction, closer to the mainstream of society and the but may be much less structured. Learning is economy. Federal and state funds for adult change of behavior which may result from education even into the 1970s have been conmaturation, individual experience, insight, or centrated on basic education, high school comstudy. It is not necessarily a result of formal pletion, and vocational preparation. Some education or a social undertaking but may be educators have called upon educational inindividualistic. Learning doubtless occurs often stitutions to move decisively into the arena of and regularly throughout adulthood. It is difeducation for adults of all ages at all levels of inficult to imagine moving through the course of struction (Ecklund, 1969; McClusky, 1970; life without learning. However, this learning Frank, 1955). Numerous educational needs of may be in opposition to previous learning, or adults have been identified and a wide variety may well be inaccurate or irrelevant to the inof programmatic goals have been specified, but dividual. Lifelong learning is such an alla limited amount of actual programming has encompassing concept that it is nearly imbeen undertaken to date. possible to use in any discussion of education in the adult years. Life-span education denotes the type of educational programming which is conEducational Institutions and Life-Span ceptually based on the data provided by lifespan psychologists. It focuses attention on the Education lifelong process of human development and It is becoming increasingly apparent to emphasizes education as an intervention higher education that its responsibility does not mechanism to maximize functioning. Life-sparT^ end with the preparation of children and youth education has much in common with the field for adult roles. Consequently, public and of adult and continuing education which is private educational institutions as well as comcharacterized by a tremendous diversity of" munity organizations and business enterprises philosophical and psychological positions \ are entering the area of life-span education. (Sheats, 1970). At the same time, life-span ( Birren and Woodruff's (1973) excellent papery education is more focused. It may be viewed as \relating the research and concepts of life-span a planned series of activities undertaken by an ^development to education suggests reasons individual throughout his life which by Dy in- /why life-span education has become necessary creasing his knowledge, improving his skills, in recent years. They include, in part, a and modifying his attitudes, will facilitate his changing age structure of society, an inadjustment to the societal and individual creasing educational level (and subsequent inchanges which affect him. Although other in- terest in education) of aging cohorts, the stitutions have been involved, colleges and rapidity of social change, career pattern universities have been in the forefront of the changes, the expanding roles of women, and life-span education movement. changed attitudes toward education. It will be noted that the definition of life-span It is probably not incidental that the growing education places emphasis on a planned series awareness of life-span education comes at a of activities. This emphasis distinguishes be- time when many educational institutions find tween those which are incidental to the pur- their traditional support bases eroding. The poseful educational process and those which declines and disciplinary shifts within un-
These contemporary events have led educational institutions to devote increasing at-
tention to the nontraditional student — the adult, the mid-career person, the woman reentering the job market, the person preparing for retirement, and the individual with extensive amounts of leisure. Both the needs of the individuals and those of the institutions are focusing education on new consumers with the resultant shift in institutional programs. The role of the institution, as well as that of the academic gerontologist, in formulating the appropriate institutional responses for program development has been delineated in the preceding position paper by Spinetta and Hickey. Content and Emphasis of Education
Life-Span
An attempt will be made here to suggest at least a few points in the life-span when education will have unusual value. Although there are doubtless innumerable conceptualizations of the content that can be made, for purposes of brevity and relevance only three areas will be dealt with-vocational preparation and development, leisure time anticipation and usage, and attitude toward aging and old age. (V Vocational Preparation and Development Educational institutions today are heavily oriented toward vocational subjects. The secondary schools' traditional preparation programs are of concern to life-span education due primarily to the expectations they raise in the individual. Too many graduates believe acquisition of skills in school will assure success in work life. Although education has intrinsic value to the individual, it may not be the key to advancement in all vocational fields (W.E. Upjohn Institute, 1972). Too often, persons believe that their vocational education will permanently equip them to meet their employment responsibilities. This discourages typical workers from seeking to update and improve their skills. Many seem to lapse into a lengthy state of educational somnolence disturbed only when job changes displace or modify the position of the individual. Frequently, this is too late to prepare for necessary accommodations without a stressful period of un- or under-employment. This situation could be remedied by facilitating the development of a different attitude and by periodic skill upgrading. A positive attitude toward life-span vocational education can have great usefulness to those
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dergraduate enrollments and a population growth pattern which will reduce the magnitude of elementary and secondary education in the coming years encourage educational institutions to seek alternatives. • Not many years ago it was fashionable to anticipate continuing growth of school population. However, elementary and secondary enrollments are now declining regularly, with the latter projected to drop by one million students in the 1970s (National Center of Educational Statistics, 1972). This decrease is leading to other avenues of programming for public schools, increasing their interest in adult programs. Declining enrollments are a common occurrence at private and public colleges in the last few years. The "emerging" state colleges which grew so rapidly in the 1960s have been hardest hit. While 1973 enrollments rose 4.2% at public universities and 9.4% in public 2-year colleges, state college enrollment declined by 2%. The midwest and great plains felt the heaviest decline with up to a 10% decrease in state college enrollment (Scully, 1974). Reduced enrollments, of course, are not unrelated to the financial problems in numerous colleges today. Colleges and universities are faced with rapidly increasing costs, hesitant legislatures, reduced private support and federal aid. This is leading to reductions of faculty and staff and the demise of numerous small private institutions (Witkowski, 1974). To ease the problems of a declining student body, many state colleges and universities have begun to develop a series of alternatives to traditional programs —especially the education of teachers. The -Cainegie Commission on Higher Education has encouraged colleges in this movement and'"has suggested expanding the age of the normal student body to include both younger and older students (Scully, 1973). This movement coincides with the interest which older people have in subjects that are instrumental in meeting the challenges which occur in old age (Hiemstra, 1972). It also comes at a time when many of the programs designed to serve the aging are demanding personnel with specific skills in providing direct service such as counseling, recreation, nutrition, education, advocacy, and planning for older people. Consequently, institutions of higher education have begun to design and conduct such programs as a response both to general needs and to those of the field of aging.
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post-training employment, income, and reduction in dependency, thus tending to offset ageism in our society (Somers, 1966). Preparation for retirement from the lifelong vocation is another point at which life-span education can play a meaningful role. Although preretirement education programs vary greatly, most place the primary emphasis on either assisting people to plan better for their later life (planning) or facilitating adjustment to the retirement situation (counseling). In a review of the limited amount of research available, Kasschau (1974) concludes that the planning function is generally more successfully fulfilled by preretirement education programs than is the counseling function. Unfortunately, however, those individuals who are experiencing the greatest problems in later life are the ones least likely to really do any serious planning. Education, then, is available to and accepted by those who have the greatest likelihood of succeeding without it. This problem notwithstanding, life-span education has a significant role to play in the vocational life of the individual if it can be developed and implemented from early school experiences through the final stages of retirement. (2) Leisure Time Preparation and Usage The amount of discretionary time available to the average American has increased steadily over this century, and while perhaps not expanding as rapidly as earlier predictions would have indicated, it has nonetheless altered the balance between work and leisure. Today's worker spends less than 40 hours/week on the job compared to over 60 hours for his grandfather; and he enjoys annual paid holidays, vacation, and sick days—frequently equivalent to as much as one full month. Moreover, the period of retirement he can expect to have is as much as 10 years. The use of this extensive amount of leisure time is a significant variable in determining the quality of the individual's life. It is predicted by some that the amount of leisure time will continue to expand in the future. With "provision of material needs and related services assured, the desire for growing material affluence is gradually displaced by concern for psychic and social enrichment in non-work settings" (Johnston, 1972). Contrary to this prediction, another approach is to assume a work ethic which equates leisure with frivolity and waste and to conclude that new jobs and increased productivity with con-
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whose adult lives are not completely employment oriented. Women, for instance, who leave the work role to raise a family and return a number of years later, are finding both the requirement and helpfulness of continuing education as a way of exploring changes in the field as well as upgrading outdated skills. A positive attitude toward this process facilitates successful re-entry into the job world. A second point in the vocational cycle where education seems particularly appropriate occurs in the middle years of the occupation. It involves a view of a "career clock" in which the individual judges to what extent he is ahead, behind, or on time with his expectations and with the role models he has adopted (Kimmel, 1974). Education may be appropriate at this time to help the individual orient his activities toward one specific area, or to assist him in retraining for a change that must be made for personal reasons. Another point in the vocational cycle where life-span education may be useful is in the preparation for and movement to a second career. A recent study has shown that 5/4 million Americans changed occupations in a recent year; 40% of these were over 35 years of age (Kelleher, 1973). Some persons may have been "pushed" by dissatisfaction, technological change, and low productivity from a previous position; many others find themselves "pulled" toward new opportunities. Training is a significant part of this process, for if the individual acquires new skills, he generally seeks out the opportunity to use them. Change of employment late in the vocational career is another point at which life-span education can play a part. A small percentage of the older population wish to find employment even though they may be viewed by others as having reached retirement age. Although the self-employed and professionals are able to continue working after normal retirement age, others find their lifelong vocational area terminated and turn to alternatives. This situation poses what may be the most difficult problem for life-span educators, since education may still be unable to overcome the widespread discrimination faced by older persons seeking employment. It is Somers' conclusion from his review of various retraining efforts that age, education, and training status have some independent influence on employment rates. Each seems to have the power to offset some of the others. Consequently, older workers who have been retrained have fared well from the standpoint of
die age to later life. Over-all, then, life-span education has much to offer in the way of preparation for the use of leisure and can appropriately be used for this prupose throughout life. (3) Attitude Toward Aging This paper concludes with a discussion of the relationship of life-span education to one of the most salient components of the gerontological literature. Less specific, but certainly no less important to the facilitation of satisfactory adjustment to the process of aging, is the role that life-span education can play in the development of a positive attitude toward the aging process. It is neither appropriate to deny the aging process and attempt to stay young forever nor to unquestioningly accept the negative stereotypes of aging and become "old" when physiological or psychological processes do not require it. Aging is normal and universal, but it does not mean that the enjoyment or scope of life must be drastically constricted at any point in the chronological process. Many Americans, however, fear aging and attempt to deny that it is happening to them. By the time a child enters formal schooling he has generally adopted a set of negative perceptions regarding older people. Only through a conscious and planned process of re-education can these unconsciously acquired negative attitudes be modified to the extent necessary to allow the individual to relate well to older people and to his feelings about his own aging process. Specific programs and units in our elementary, secondary, and higher education institutions could be designed to modify these negative attitudes by providing both cognitive and experiential input. At the elementary school level attemps need to be made to include some instruction on the process of aging and older people. Because children at that age are not likely to exhibit interest in the later part of their lives, attention will need to be focused on their parents, grandparents, and other older people in such a way that an understanding of the process of aging, use of leisure, and social programs directed to the needs of older people is acquired. At the secondary school level, the understanding and positive attitude toward the aging process may be approached through family life courses which seek to provide an awareness of the contemporary family and social structure as it affects those who are older. These educational activities are begin-
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commitant hours of employment will result. Whether people work because of some ingrained belief in its value or because of the dollars and purchasing power it brings, there is now taking place a major transformation in the relative importance of work and nonwork, a gradual reunification where work is more humanized and leisure more closely associated with productivity. This integration and the accompanying individual and social strain provides an opportunity for life-span educators to assist persons in preparation for and use of leisure time. Interest in the productive use of leisure time seems to be important throughout life. Although interests may be developed at any point in life, most are acquired early and are continued over the course of the life-span with increasing complexity and differentation occurring as skill and knowledge are gained. Thus, continuing education programs in both schools and other community agencies have taken seriously the development of skills and interests in a wide variety of nonvocational topics in the adult population generally. In most areas, however, educational institutions have not found it financially feasible to offer leisure interest pursuits in any form beyond the introductory stage. Advanced courses are rarely included for those whose appetite is whetted by the initial offering. Until such time as funds are available for general adult education programming, it is not reasonable to expect that diverse and in-depth programming will occur. In later adulthood, leisure time takes on a different and urgent meaning for many persons. The beginning withdrawal of ego involvement from employment which some people evidence as they reach middle age provides the opportunity for energy to be transferred to the leisure area rather than continuing to be concentrated in the vocation. This can become a time of deepening involvement in previous leisure pursuits and another opportunity to acquire new interests-ones which may be especially appropriate for middle and later life. Active athletic pursuits may give way to those with more limited physical strain, and those areas which at one point in life seemed too expensive may be found to be within the limits of the family budget. It is this period that may be the most meaningful in developing the leisure pursuits which will carry into retirement. Generally, persons do not begin a whole new way of life at the end of their work career, but rather there is continuity of behavior from mid-
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disposition toward aging is one of the most comprehensive and necessary functions of lifespan education, and a fitting conclusion to this position paper. References
Baltes, P., & Labouvie, G. Adult development in intellectual performance: Description, explanation, and modification. In C. Eisdorfer & M. Lawton (Eds.), The psychology of adult development and aging. American Psychological Assn., Washington, 1973. Birren, J., & Woodruff, D. Human development over the life span through education. In P. Baltes & K. Schaie (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology. Academic Press, New York, 1973. Botwinick, J. Aging and behavior. Springer, New York, 1973. Ecklund, L. Aging and the field of education. In M. Riley, J. lme7T& M. Johnson (Eds.), Aging and society, Vol. II. Russell Sage, New York, 1969. Frank, L Education for aging. In W. Donahue (Ed.), ~ Education for later maturity. Whiteside, New York, 1955. Grant, W., & Lind, C. Digest of educational statistics, 1973, USDHEW. USGPO, Washington, 1974. Hesburgh, T., Miller, P., & Wharton, C. Patterns of life long learning. Jossey Bass, San Francisco, 1973. Hiemstra, R. Continuing education for the aged: A survey of needs and interests of older people. Adult Education, 1972,22, 100-109. Jarvik, L, & Cohen, D. A biobehavioral approach to intellectual changes with aging. In C. Eisdorfer & M. Lawton (Eds.), The Psychology of adult development and aging. American Psychological Assn., Washington, 1973. -\Johnston, D^Jlhe-future"' of- wor.k.:_Ihree possible alter^nttwes-~lvfonth/y Labor Review, US Dept. Labor, Wash,iflgto.Q,,_May, 1972. Kasschau, P. Reevaluating the need for preretirement education. IndustrialGerontology, 1974,1, in.s.), 42-59. Kelleher, C. Second careers - a growing trend. Industrial Gerontology, 1973, No. 17, 1,8. Kimmel, D. Adulthood and aging. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1974. McCluskx^ J- White House Conference on Aging background paper on education. USGPO, Washington, 1970. National Advisory Council on Adult Education, Washington Annual Report, Mar, 1973. National Center for Educational Statistics. Projections of educational statistics to 1981-82. Off. of Education, USDHEW. USGPO, Washington, 1972. Scully, M. Carnegie panel asks colleges to alter admission patterns, take more adults, transfers. Chronicle of Higher Education, 1973,7, 1,4. Scully, M. State colleges lose ground in enrollments. Chronicle of Higher Education, 1974,(9, 1,7. Sheats, P. Introduction. In R. Smith, G. Aker, & J. Kidd, (Eds.), Handbook of adult education. Macmillan, . New York, 1970. Somers, G. Retraining the unemployed older worker. In J. Kreps (Ed.), Technology, manpower, and retirement policy. World Publishing, Cleveland, 1966. W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Report of a special task force to the Secretary of HEW, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1972. Witkowski, E. The economy and the university: Economic aspects of declining enrollments. Journal of Higher Education, 1974,45, 48-60.
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ning to occur as a result of some teacher training workshops. Concern at present, however, focuses on the attitudes which public school teachers have about the aging process and the extent to which they may convey inaccurate stereotypes about older people rather than actually helping to reverse student negativism. Until most teachers undergo a change in their views, it is unrealistic to expect any significant improvement in the attitude held by teenagers. At the undergraduate level, a variety of subject matter may be used to stimulate an awareness of the cultural, biological, social, and psychological concommitants of aging, and to identify personal and community goals which may be sought during the latter part of life. Student involvement in community programs and institutions can be encouraged in order to gain personal, realistic, and positive acquaintances with older individuals. During adulthood there are several approaches to life-span educational needs as they apply to attitudes toward aging. Public school and higher educational institutions may provide information on contributions of older people, on understanding physiological changes that occur in middle life, on ways of assisting parents who become infirm, on service roles and community programs and on the social adjustments throughout life. It would appear that little of this is currently taking place and that middle age has become a time when institutions and community agencies emphasize the pursuit of leisure if they program for this clientele. As people approach retirement there is great need for educational activities designed to foster a positive attitude toward later life. Preparation for retirement programs, of course, make this a key element, assuming that with increased knowledge and more realistic expectations of retirement, a happier and healthier individual will result. Even after retirement itself, it is still appropriate to provide educational experiences designed to continue positive, attitudes toward aging. Most older people have an intense interest in the changes that they see in themselves and their cohort. Later life may be a time for turning inward, of concern for health, of consciously reduced life space; but it is also a time when knowledge may help one to understand the similarity of situations and the support that may come from other's knowledge. Thus, the development and continuation of accurate knowledge and a positive
