Relationships Between Meaningful Activity, Basic Psychological Needs, and Meaning in Life: Test of the Meaningful Activity and Life Meaning Model Aaron M. Eakman, PhD, OTR key words: human activities, motivation, occupational therapy ABSTRACT The author of this study proposed and examined a theoretical model in which meaningful activity fulfills basic psychological needs and contributes to meaning in life. Hypotheses derived from the Meaningful Activity and Life Meaning model and tested within this study included: (1) meaningful activity will be associated with meaning in life, (2) meaningful activity will be associated with basic psychological needs, and (3) basic psychological needs will partially mediate the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life. Structural equation modeling with latent variables was used to test the study hypotheses. A total of 591 undergraduate and graduate students completed the Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey, the Basic Psychological Needs Scales (i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness), and the Presence subscale of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire. Results from the study were in full support of each hypothesis and indicate the important role meaningful activity may serve in fostering meaning in life.
P
ersonal meaning is seen as a central characteristic of our day-to-day activities and can imbue our lives with meaning and foster well-being (Christiansen, Baum, & Bass-Haugen, 2005; Hasselkus, 2011; Townsend & Polatajko, 2007; Yerxa et al., 1990). Yet the nature of the ties linking meaningful activity to life meaning has not been well developed within occupational science or occupational therapy. This gap in knowledge may be due to definitional ambiguity surrounding the concept of meaningful activity (Eakman, 2012; Hammell, 2004; Leufstadius, Erlasnsson, Björkman, & Eklund, 2008). Furthermore, there has been limited theoretical synthesis and empirical study that explains the influence of meaningful activity on meaning in life. It is therefore of great importance to further
our understanding of these concepts, which in turn could support efforts to foster personal well-being. The purpose of the current study was to assert and empirically test a tentative theoretical model indicating that meaningful activity may affect meaning in life directly and indirectly as mediated by the fulfillment of basic psychological needs. A representation of the Meaningful Activity and Life Meaning (MALM) model can be seen in Figure 1. To advance this model, a brief review of its central constructs is offered below. Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives on Meaningful Activity From Occupational Therapy and Occupational Science The concept of meaningful activity is inherently difficult to define despite its ubiquitous use, espe-
Aaron M. Eakman, PhD, OTR, is Assistant Professor, Department of Occupational Therapy, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. Submitted: August 1, 2012; Accepted: January 22, 2013. The author has no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein. Address correspondence to Aaron Eakman at [email protected]. doi: 10.3928/15394492-20130222-02
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cially within the profession of occupational therapy. However, there is a growing understanding that meaningful activity can be defined as a subjective experience composed of a breadth of unique and identifiable qualities (e.g., Eakman, 2012; Hammell, 2009; Leufstadius et al., 2008). The concept of meaningful activity reflects the idea that day-to day action comprises personal meanings or experiences. For example, Keilhofner (1985; p. 505) suggested the meaning of activities is reflected in “an individual’s disposition to find importance, security, worthiness and purpose in particular occupations,” whereas Christiansen and Baum (1997; p. 599) defined the meaning of activities as “the personal significance of an event as interpreted by an individual.” Others have suggested an array of subjective qualities reflect meaningful activity. The importance of identifying unique constellations of personal values and beliefs, interests, and life goals has been advocated by Jackson, Carlson, Mandel, Zemke, and Clark (1998). Further, experiences of pleasure and enjoyment, social connectedness, and competent completion of personal tasks may constitute meaningful activity (Persson, Erlandsson, Eklund, & Iwarsson, 2001). Qualitative researchers drawing from personal narratives have confirmed that meaningful activity may be composed of a breadth of subjective experiences. First, meaningful activity appears to have qualities of experience that are clearly social in nature, such as a sense of contributing to or caring for others and enjoyable social interactions (Aguilar, Boerema, & Harrison, 2010; Ludwig, Hattjar, Russell, & Winston, 2007). Second, aspects of meaningful activity reflect ideas of motivation and purposive action such as perceived control, success in task completion, and goal progress (Eakman, Carlson, & Clark, 2010; Leufstadius et al., 2008), which are often associated with experiences of pleasure and satisfaction (Reed, Hocking, & Smythe, 2010; Scheerer, Cahill, Kirby, & Lane, 2004). Finally, personal values and beliefs appear to influence how individuals experience meaningful activity (Bundgaard, 2005; Hannam, 1997; Jonsson, Borell, & Sadlo, 2000). In sum, the concept of meaningful activity can be understood as generally positive qualities of subjective experiences associated with human action or doing. Linking Meaningful Activity to Life Meaning Within the MALM model, meaningful activity is purported to directly influence meaning in life (see the bottom arrow in Figure 1). This section offers a brief introduction to the concept of meaning in life and its relationship to meaningful activity. Meaning
Figure 1. The Meaningful Activity and Life Meaning model.
in life tends to be defined as making sense, order, or coherence out of one’s existence and typically reflects the importance of purposive engagement in day-to-day life (Battista & Almond, 1973; Baumeister, 1991; Reker, Peacock, & Wong, 1987). Importantly, meaning in life has been identified as an essential aspect of psychological well-being with significant implications for mental and physical health (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002; Klinger, 2012). Meaning in life has also been identified as a critical outcome of a person’s engagement in activity (Hasselkus, 2011; Townsend & Polatajko, 2007; Yerxa et al., 1990). Occupational therapy and occupational science have clearly been influenced by existential philosophy that indicates meaningful activity is required for finding meaning in life. For example, Frankl (1959/1984) posited that one’s personal works and deeds, relationships with others, and attitudes taken toward day-to-day life influence life meaning. Further, Yalom (1980) argued that purposive action and persistence in making progress toward valued goals contributes to meaning in life. These propositions support the idea that the meaning we attribute to our lives is derived in great part through meaningful activity (Clark et al., 1991). Furthermore, meaningful activity and meaning in life appear to reflect two distinct yet related levels of human experience. That is, experiences derived through participation in day-to-day life are influenced by, and contribute to, a person’s evaluation of meaning in her or his life. The occupational value and life meaning model (Park, 2010; Persson et al., 2001) and meaning in life experiences model (King, 2004) offer important perspectives regarding this dichotomy. Within the Value and Meaning in Occupation (ValMO) model (Persson et al., 2001), perceptions of value derived through activity (e.g., satisfaction from completing an important task and feeling close to other individuals) are recognized as subjective experiences directly associated with everyday activi-
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ties (Persson & Erlandsson, 2010). Another proposition within the ValMO model indicates that these experiences of value contribute to life meaning. The model of meaning in life experiences proffered by King (2004) also conceives of doing and the experience of doing as central to the development of meaning in life. King further suggested that the satisfaction of human needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, and relatedness) through personal action is critical for developing meaning in life. Meaningful Activity, Basic Human Needs Fulfillment, and Life Meaning With the MALM model, meaningful activity contributes to meaning in life directly and indirectly by meeting basic psychological needs. This is consistent with other need-based perspectives linking the fulfillment of human needs, via activity, to life meaning and well-being (e.g., Baumeister, 1991; Hammell, 2009; King, 2004; Matuska & Christiansen, 2008). The MALM model incorporates ideas from SelfDetermination theory, a motivational framework that explores basic psychological needs fulfillment (Deci & Ryan, 1990, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Proponents of the theory have asserted that activity in pursuit of personally relevant goals is important for meeting the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. With respect to the MALM model, engagement in meaningful activity offers a means through which a person may fulfill her or his basic psychological needs. For example, activities that express personal values, are experienced as being autonomously chosen and competence is achieved, and connect a person to a social collective should contribute to the fulfillment of these needs. Furthermore, fulfillment of basic psychological needs partially mediates the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life (see the top arrows in Figure 1). This aspect of the MALM model reflects the understanding that basic psychological needs may have a direct and supportive effect on meaning in life (Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2008; Weinstein, Ryan, & Deci, 2012). Therefore, meaningful activity offers opportunities to fulfill basic psychological needs, which in turn affects meaning in life; as reviewed above, meaningful activity may also directly influence meaning in life. This brief review has asserted and succinctly framed a theoretical model linking meaningful activity to meaning in life. The purpose of this study was therefore to empirically evaluate three related hypotheses that may be drawn from the MALM model: (1) meaningful activity is associated with meaning in life, (2) meaningful activity is associated with basic
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psychological needs, and (3) the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life is, in part, mediated through basic psychological needs.
Methods Testing Procedures and Participants The current study adopted a cross-sectional, non-experimental correlational design. A total of 591 surveys were completed by undergraduate and graduate students enrolled at a mid-sized university in the Mountain West United States between March 2009 and August 2010 as part of three related studies approved by the institution’s Human Subjects Committee. Participants had to be enrolled at the University and be 18 years of age or older to be included in the study; there were no exclusion criteria. Personalized e-mail invitations were sent to randomly selected students, followed by two reminder e-mails sent within a 1-week time frame. Participants were provided a link to a web-based survey hosted by SurveyMonkey. Informed consent was established and participants completed one of five versions of randomly ordered survey instruments. The samples from each study were combined, resulting in a sample size of N = 591 for the current study. The response rate and the total number of individuals invited to complete the survey for the three studies were, respectively, 17.9% (682), 19.6% (1,143), and 15.6% (1,571), for an overall response rate of 17.4% (i.e., 591 of 3,396). Participants were on average 29.9 years of age (median = 27 years; range: 18 to 59 years); 59.5% were female and 54.4% were not married. Most were undergraduate students (66.3%) and a large majority of the sample was Caucasian (88%). The next largest racial/ethnic groups within the sample were Hispanic/Latino (4.7%), Asian (3.7%), and American Indian or Alaska Native (1.5%). Measures Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey (EMAS). The EMAS (Goldberg, Brintnell, & Goldberg, 2002) was used as a measurement-level indicator of meaningful activity. It is a 12-item survey that incorporates a breadth of items reflecting the construct of meaningful activity. Each of the 12 EMAS items begins with, “The activities I do…” and includes, respectively: help me take care of myself, reflect the kind of person I am, express my creativity, help me achieve something which gives me a sense of accomplishment, contribute to my feeling competent, are valued by other people, help other people, give me pleasure, give me a feeling of control, help me express my personal values, give me a sense of satisfaction, and have just the right amount of chal-
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lenge. EMAS test–retest reliability (r = .81) and internal consistency reliability (␣ = .88) have been good, and the scale demonstrates very good convergent and predictive validity (Eakman, 2011; Eakman & Eklund, 2012); evidence of the unidemensionality of the EMAS has been supported (Eakman, 2012). Respondents rated each EMAS item on a 5-point scale that included 1 (never), 2 (rarely), 3 (sometimes), 4 (usually), and 5 (always), which were subsequently recoded (1 = 1, 2 = 1, 3 = 2, 4 = 3, 5 = 4) for data analyses to enhance measurement precision as recommended by Eakman (2012). Basic Psychological Needs Scale (BPNS). The BPNS comprises three subscales that assess the constructs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness proposed by Deci and Ryan (2002; Ryan, 1995). It serves as the measurement-level indicator of the basic psychological needs latent variable. Examples of items reflecting each of the three basic psychological needs include: Autonomy: “I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life,” “I generally feel free to express my ideas and opinions,”; Competence: “I have been able to learn interesting new skills recently,” “Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from what I do”; and Relatedness: “I really like the people I interact with,” and “People in my life care about me.” The BPNS subscales have been shown to have adequate psychometric properties including internal consistency reliability and construct validity (Eakman, 2011; Gagne, 2003; Kashdan, Julian, Merritt, & Uswatte, 2006). The subscales consist of seven, six, and eight items, respectively, and respondents rated each item on a 7-point scale from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (very true); the BPNS subscale scores were generated according to the published algorithm (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MILQ). The MILQ is a 10-item scale that assesses both the presence of meaning in life (MILQ-P) and the search for meaning in life. For this study, only the MILQ-P was used for data analysis. The MILQ-P comprises five items that assess meaning in life defined as the sense made of, and significance felt, regarding the nature of one’s being and existence (Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006). The MILQ-P was administered along with the 5-item Search subscale of the MILQ (MILQ-S); the MILQ-S items were not used for analyses within the current study because they represent a personal search for meaning that was not a construct of interest. Examples of the MILQ-P items include: “I understand my life’s meaning,” “My life has a clear sense of purpose,” and “I have a good sense of what makes my life meaningful.” The items comprising the MILQ-P have been shown to assess a unidimensional
life meaning construct and the scale demonstrates good test–retest reliability (r = .86) and good internal consistency (␣ = .86). Respondents rated each of the five MILQ-P items on a 7-point scale from 1 (absolutely untrue) to 7 (absolutely true); MILQ-P scores were generated according to the published algorithm (Steger et al., 2006). Data Analysis Specification of the Latent Variable Measurement Model. Latent variable modeling is a class of the structural equation model (SEM), which offers robust statistical tools for assessing relationships among variables and may offer initial evidence of causal assumptions suggested by theory (Bollen, 1989). The foundation of the SEM latent variable is the measured variable (i.e., the specific indicator that is observed or assessed through a researcher’s data collection process). Latent variables generated within SEM modeling therefore reflect hypothetical constructs derived from the measurement-level variables (Kline, 2011; Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991). The meaningful activity latent variable was created by randomly assigning the 12 EMAS items to one of three parcels, summing those items, and dividing by four within each parcel to obtain three measurement-level indicators of meaningful activity. The three parcels were composed of the following EMAS items: EMAS parcel 1 (2, 4, 6, and 9), EMAS parcel 2 (1, 5, 7, and 12), and EMAS parcel 3 (3, 8, 10, and 11). The meaning in life latent variable was created using the five items of the MILQ-P as measurement-level indicators. The basic psychological needs latent variable was created using the three BPNS subscales (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) as measurement-level indicators. Estimation and Fit of the Latent Variable Path Model. The maximum likelihood procedure within the Mplus statistical package version 6.12 (Muthen & Muthen, 2011) was applied to the covariance matrix to estimate the SEM model and to provide indicators of overall model fit. The SEM latent variable path model tested in the current study reflects direct paths from meaningful activity to meaning in life and basic psychological needs and an indirect (partially mediated) path from meaningful activity through basic psychological needs to meaning in life. A significant test of a direct path cannot indicate that one construct causes change in another construct because of the cross-sectional design used in this study. However, a significant path offers empirical evidence to support the causal inferences suggested by theory (Bollen, 1989; Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006). Alternatively, the absence of a sig-
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Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Zero-Order Correlations Among 11 Measurement-Level Variables (N = 591)a Mean (SD)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
EMAS Parcel 1
2.72 (0.58)
1
2
EMAS Parcel 2
2.73 (0.52)
.78
1
3
EMAS Parcel 3
2.69 (0.63)
.76
.70
1
4
Autonomy
4.94 (0.98)
.48
.43
.46
1
5
Competence
5.18 (0.99)
.58
.52
.50
.64
1
6
Relatedness
5.55 (0.91)
.49
.46
.44
.67
.65
1
7
MILQ-P 1
5.35 (1.46)
.39
.37
.34
.35
.40
.34
1
8
MILQ-P 4
5.26 (1.50)
.38
.37
.34
.36
.40
.35
.72
1
9
MILQ-P 5
5.66 (1.29)
.36
.34
.31
.39
.40
.39
.69
.77
1
10
MILQ-P 6
5.30 (1.48)
.42
.38
.39
.35
.41
.35
.68
.75
.73
1
11
MILQ-P 9
5.67 (1.58)
.37
.34
.33
.38
.44
.41
.57
.62
.54
.58
11
1
SD = standard deviation; EMAS = Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey; MILQ-P = Meaning in Life Questionnaire – Presence subscale; a p < .001 for all.
nificant path would provide substantive evidence that would challenge the assumptions proposed by a researcher. Model fit was evaluated with reference to the comparative fit index (CFI) where values greater than .95 are considered excellent (Bentler, 1990), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), where values .05 or less are considered good fit, and standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) with values less than .05 are considered well fitting (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen, 2008). The chi-square statistic was also computed, yet given the large sample size the relative 2 (calculated as 2/df) was used with a value of 5 or less indicating good fit (Hooper et al., 2008). The measurement-level data satisfied normality assumptions, which is a critical concern within the SEM modeling procedures employed in this study. Test of Mediation Within the Latent Variable Path Model. SEM latent variable path modeling also offers a tool to test for an indirect or mediated path of influence from one construct to another (Kline, 2011; Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006). Finding a significant indirect path offers evidence to suggest that one construct (e.g., meaningful activity) may, in part, influence another construct (e.g., meaning in life) through an intermediary construct (e.g., basic psychological needs). Mediation within the structural path model was estimated within the Mplus program using the Delta (Sobel) method (MacKinnon, 2008; Sobel, 1982) and following the process set forth by Baron and Kenny (1986). This approach offers estimates of total effect, as well as decomposed direct and indirect effects of meaningful activity on meaning in life. Because it was also hypothesized that part of the
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relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life occurs via a direct (unmediated) path, a comparison with an alternative trimmed model (i.e., absence of a direct path from meaningful activity to meaning in life) was tested with the chi-square difference statistic (Kline, 2011). An elevation in the chisquare estimate in the trimmed model, compared to the full model, would indicate model fit is significantly degraded with the absence of a direct path from meaningful activity to meaning in life.
Results Estimation and Fit of the SEM Latent Variable Path Model The means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among the 11 measurement-level indicators are reported in Table 1. The three EMAS parcels were highly correlated (mean r = .75), followed in level of association by the five MILQ-P items (mean r = .67) and the three BPNS indicators of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (mean r = .65). The Mplus software also generates zero-order correlations among the latent variables. The meaningful activity latent variable was moderately correlated with basic psychological needs (r = .70) and meaning in life (r = .50); basic psychological needs and meaning in life were also moderately correlated (r = .56) with p < .001 for all. The standardized loadings of each indicator (e.g., EMAS parcels 1, 2 and 3) on its respective factors (e.g., meaningful activity) were moderately high to very high, ranging from .69 to .92 (mean = .83) (Figure 2). Standardized loadings can be interpreted as the zero-order correlation between each indicator and the latent variable they were intended to reflect and evi-
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Figure 2. Estimated model (N = 591). Factor loadings on the latent variables and the paths among the latent variables are standardized; p < .001 for all. EMAS = Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey parcels, MLQ-P = Meaning in Life Questionnaire–Presence subscale items; †: an additional indirect effect of meaningful activity through basic psychological needs on meaning in life = .29, p < .001.
dence of moderate to high loadings support the use of latent variables for subsequent analysis. The first two research hypotheses were supported by the results of this study as evidenced by the very good to excellent SEM fit indices. The SEM fit indices were as follows: CFI = .989 (values > .95 are considered excellent), RMSEA = .045; 90% confidence interval: .032 - .057 (values ⭐ .05 are considered good fit), and SRMR = .030 (values < .05 are considered well fitting). The chi-square statistic was elevated 2(41, N = 591) = 89.70, p < .0001, which was not unanticipated for such a large sample size. The relative 2 was 2.19, indicating excellent model fit. Test of Mediation Within the SEM Latent Variable Path Model The research hypothesis that basic psychological needs would partially mediate the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life was also supported. The SEM latent variable path model estimates can be found in Figure 2. The standardized effect of meaningful activity on basic psychological needs was .70 (p < .001), whereas the standardized total effect of meaningful activity on meaning in life was .50 (p < .001). When the effects of meaningful activity on meaning in life were decomposed, it was
demonstrated that basic psychological needs partially mediated this relationship. Specifically, there was a direct effect of meaningful activity on meaning in life (.21; p < .001) in addition to a mediated effect of meaningful activity on meaning in life operating through basic psychological needs (.29; p < .001). The relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life was best explained by a combined direct path and indirect path through basic psychological needs. The trimmed model resulted in a 2 difference of 11.82; df = 1, p < .001, indicating the loss of a direct path from meaningful activity to meaning in life significantly increased the model 2, therefore reflecting a poorer model fit. All disturbances that reflect unknown causes and score unreliability are indicated within the small circles in Figure 2. Finally, meaningful activity explained nearly 50% of the variance in basic psychological needs and together meaningful activity and basic psychological needs explained 34% of the variance in meaning in life.
Discussion The current study offered and empirically tested the MALM model, which indicated that meaningful activity may affect meaning in life directly and
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indirectly as mediated by the fulfillment of basic psychological needs. It was found that meaningful activity is associated with both basic psychological needs and meaning in life. Further, the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life may indeed occur through two pathways. The first pathway may be that meaningful activity directly affects meaning in life. The second pathway may be that meaningful activity affects the fulfillment of basic psychological needs, which in turn influences meaning in life. Meaningful activity is a concept central to the processes and outcomes of occupational therapy (American Occupational Therapy Association, 2008; Townsend & Polatajko, 2007). Yet progress in understanding the mechanisms through which meaningful activity influences well-being, specifically meaning in life, has lagged due in part to difficulties with clearly defining and validly assessing meaningful activity. The current study adds to our understanding of meaningful activity by conceptualizing it as a subjective phenomenon comprising a breadth of qualities of experience. The EMAS was used as the measurement-level indicator of meaningful activity, and this scale has been shown to validly and reliably detect individual differences (Eakman, 2012). As an example of the breadth of the EMAS, two of its items reflect socially related meanings that have been identified within the fields of occupational therapy and occupational science as important aspects of activity (e.g., Hammell, 2004; Hasselkus, 2011). Socially related experiences associated with activity have also been identified within theories of motivation, psychological development, and well-being. These theories indicate that socially related experiences linked to human action are critical factors influencing perceptions of meaning in life (Baumeister, 1991; Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2008; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). The EMAS additionally taps into affective experience (i.e., pleasure), the expression of deeply held personal values, just right challenge, and a sense of control, which is in agreement with a variety of theorists (Bandura, 1997; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, 2010). Consistent with this study’s findings, these qualities of meaningful activity may serve a critical role in supporting meaning in life (King, Hicks, Krull, & Del Gaiso, 2006; Persson et al., 2001). Unique to this study, however, is empirical support for the MALM model in which it was asserted that fulfillment of basic psychological needs may partly mediate the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life. Notably, this indirect path accounted for nearly 30% more
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variance compared to the direct influence of meaningful activity on meaning in life. The presence of an indirect partially mediated path between meaningful activity and meaning in life is important for two key reasons. First, meaningful activity may assert a positive influence on well-being by fulfilling basic psychological needs. As mentioned above, meaningful activity includes the expression of personal identity and personal values that are consistent with the Self-Determination theory concept of autonomy. A sense of accomplishment and just right challenge found through meaningful activity may serve to support competence needs, whereas aspects of meaningful activity perceived as being valued by and of benefit to other individuals likely support needs for relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Proponents of Self-Determination theory have also suggested that fulfillment of basic psychological needs, in part, offers essential content to purposeful action which, in turn, imbues life with meaning (Ryan et al., 2008). This perspective highlights the idea that purposeful activity in and of itself may not be the critical mechanism through which activity contributes to a sense of life meaning and wellbeing. Rather, purposeful action that is supportive of an individual’s basic psychological need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness likely contributes to perceptions that one’s life is rich with personal meaning (Weinstein et al., 2012). Second, the presence of a significant direct path within the MALM model indicates meaningful activity may afford a unique effect on meaning in life separate from basic psychological needs. The EMAS incorporates items that have been associated with meaning in life yet are not directly circumscribed by Self-Determination theory. For example, experiences of pleasure (e.g., positive affect) may arise through the successful pursuit of personally valued goals and therefore play a significant role in higher experiences such as meaning in life (King et al., 2006; Steger, Kashdan, & Oishi, 2004). Also, opportunities to engage in creative expression through activities may infuse life with meaning by offering positive emotional feedback (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Finally, the construct of meaningful activity adopted in this study reflects one approach to personal meaning, yet other perspectives will be useful for developing the MALM model. For example, individuals are capable of experiencing anxiety, boredom, and sadness within their day-to-day activities (Borrell, Lilja, Svidén, & Sadlo, 2001; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Martin, Sadlo, & Stew, 2006; Persson & Jonsson, 2009). These forms of meaning in activity may arise when individuals fail to achieve their personal
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goals or lose close personal relationships (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Solomon, 2006). The MALM model will therefore need to be expanded to reflect a broader range of meaning associated with activity. There are limitations to the current study that should be considered. First, because of its crosssectional design, assertions of causal relationships among the constructs could not be verified. However, the theory underlying the MALM model does suggest that meaningful activity should influence basic psychological needs fulfillment and contribute to meaning in life. Empirical support for the MALM model within this study offers initial evidence in support of this claim. Nonetheless, the nature and extent of casual associations cannot be determined without judiciously employing longitudinal and experimental designs (MacKinnon, Fairchild, & Fritz, 2007). For example, it is also possible that existing repertoires of activity were selected and pursued (intrinsically motivated) because of the capacity of those activities to satisfy basic psychological needs (Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000). Additionally, other factors that were not measured within this study (i.e., positive affect) may assert unique effects on meaningful activity, basic psychological needs, and meaning in life. Therefore, future research should incorporate indicators that may further our understanding of the relationships among these constructs. A second limitation relates to the generalizability of the study’s findings because the sample was composed of university undergraduate and graduate students from the Mountain West United States, of which an overwhelming majority were Caucasian. A process of randomly selecting participants aided in obtaining a relatively representative university sample, but low response rates may have mitigated this quality to some degree. It is recommended that future research include more ethnically and culturally diverse samples. Researchers should also include individuals who are more likely to experience participation restrictions. This line of study could increase our understanding of how meaningful activity influences human needs fulfillment and life meaning for individuals living with disabilities. Finally, future research should consider adopting additional indicators of both meaningful activity and well-being to more broadly explore the relationships among these constructs.
Conclusion Within this study, the MALM model was proposed, which links meaningful activity to the fulfillment of basic psychological needs and the support
of meaning in life. Results from the latent variable path model demonstrated the feasibility of a direct effect and an indirect effect of meaningful activity on meaning in life as mediated by basic psychological needs. The current study therefore offers support to propositions from occupational therapy, occupational science, and related social science disciplines that implicate meaningful activity as an important factor contributing to personal well-being. Acknowledgments This study was supported in part by the Faculty Research Committee and the Department of Physical and Occupational Therapy at Idaho State University; and was previously presented at the American Occupational Therapy Association Annual Conference in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, April 14-17, 2011. Thanks to Drs. Mike Steger and Karen Atler for their comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript. References Aguilar, A., Boerema, C., & Harrison, J. (2010). Meanings attributed by older adults to computer use. Journal of Occupational Science, 17, 27-33. American Occupational Therapy Association. (2008). Occupational therapy framework: Domain and process 2nd ed. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 62, 625-683. Bandura, A. (1997). Self efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. Battista, J., & Almond, R. (1973). The development of meaning in life. Psychiatry, 36, 409-427. Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Meanings of life. New York: The Guilford Press. Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238-246. Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Borrell, L., Lilja, M., Svidén, G. A., & Sadlo, G. (2001). Occupations and signs of reduced hope: An explorative study of older adults with functional impairments. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55, 311-316. Bundgaard, K. M. (2005). The meaning of everyday meals in living units for older people. Journal of Occupational Science, 12, 91-101. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press. Christiansen, C. H., & Baum, C. M. (1997). Glossary. In C. H. Christiansen & C. M. Baum (Eds.), Occupational therapy: Overcoming human performance deficits (pp. 591-606). Thorofare, NJ: SLACK Incorporated. Christiansen, C. H., Baum, C. M., & Bass-Haugen, J. (Eds.). (2005). Occupational therapy: Performance, participation, and well-being (3rd ed.). Thorofare, NJ: SLACK Incorporated.
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Clark, F., Parham, D., Carlson, M. E., Frank, G., Jackson, J., Pierce, D., . . . Zemke, R. (1991). Occupational science: Academic innovation in the service of occupational therapy’s future. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 45, 300-310. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Rowe. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity. New York: HarperCollins. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1990). A motivational approach to self: integration in personality. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 38, 237-288. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Basic psychological needs scales. Available at: http://www.selfdeterminationtheory. org/questionnaires/10-questionnaires/53 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of self-determination theory. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. Eakman, A. M. (2011). Convergent validity of the Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey in a college sample. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 31, 23-32. doi:10.3928/15394492-20100122-02 Eakman, A. M. (2012). Measurement characteristics of the Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey in an agediverse sample. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 66, e20-e29. doi:10.5014-ajot.2012.001867 Eakman, A. M., Carlson, M. E., & Clark, F. A. (2010). Factor structure, reliability and convergent validity of the Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey for older adults. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 30, 111-121. doi:10.3928/15394492-20090518-01 Eakman, A. M., & Eklund, M. (2012). The relative impact of personality traits, meaningful occupation and occupational value on meaning in life and life satisfaction. Journal of Occupational Science, 19, 165-177. doi:10.1080/14427591.2012.671762 Frankl, V. E. (1959/1984). Man’s search for meaning. New York: Simon & Schuster. Gagne, M. (2003). The role of autonomy support and autonomy orientation in prosocial behavior engagement. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 199-223. Goldberg, B., Brintnell, E. S., & Goldberg, J. (2002). The relationship between engagement in meaningful activities and quality of life in persons disabled by mental illness. Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 18(2), 17-44. Hammell, K. W. (2004). Dimensions of meaning in the occupations of daily life. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 71, 296-305. Hammell, K. W. (2009). Self-care, productivity, and leisure, or dimensions of occupational experience? Rethinking occupational “categories”. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 76, 107-114. Hannam, D. (1997). More than a cup of tea: meaning construction in an everyday occupation. Journal of Occupational Science, 4, 69-74. Hasselkus, B. R. (2011). The meaning of everyday occupation. Thorofare, NJ: SLACK Incorporated. Heckhausen, J., & Heckhausen, H. (2008). Motivation and action. New York: Cambridge University Press. Heckhausen, J., Wrosch, C., & Schulz, R. (2010). A motivational theory of life-span development. Psychological Review, 117, 32-60. Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. R. (2008). Structural
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Persson, D., Erlandsson, L.-K., Eklund, M., & Iwarsson, S. (2001). Value dimensions, meaning, and complexity in human occupation: A tentative structure for analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 8, 7-18. Persson, D., & Jonsson, H. (2009). Importance of experiential challenges in a balanced life: Micro- and macro-perspectives. In K. Matuska & C. H. Christiansen (Eds.), Life balance: Multidisciplinary theories and research (pp. 133-148). Thorofare, NJ: SLACK Incorporated. Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2006). A first course in structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Psychology Press. Reed, K., Hocking, C., & Smythe, L. (2010). The interconnected meanings of occupation: The call, being-with, possibilities. Journal of Occupational Science, 17, 140-149. Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 419-435. Reker, G. T., Peacock, E. J., & Wong, P. T. P. (1987). Meaning and purpose in life and well-being: A life-span perspective. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 44-49. Ryan, R. M. (1995). Psychological needs and the facilitation of integrative processes. Journal of Personality, 63, 397-427. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. Ryan, R. M., Huta, V., & Deci, E. L. (2008). Living well: A selfdetermination theory perspective on eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 139-170. Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719-727.
Scheerer, C. R., Cahill, L. G., Kirby, K., & Lane, J. (2004). Cake decorating as occupation: Meaning and motivation. Journal of Occupational Science, 11, 68-74. Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 159-186). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association. Solomon, R. (2006). The passions: Philosophy and the intelligence of emotions. Chantilly, VA: The Teaching Company. Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 80-93. Steger, M. F., Kashdan, T. B., & Oishi, S. (2004). Being good by doing good: Daily eudaimonic activity and well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 22-42. Townsend, E. A., & Polatajko, H. (2007). Enabling occupation II: Advancing an occupational therapy vision for health, well-being & justice through occupation. Ottawa, ON: CAOT Publications ACE. Weinstein, N., Ryan, R. R., & Deci, E. L. (2012). Motivation, meaning, and wellness: A self-determination perspective on the creation and internalization of personal meaning and life goals. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research and applications (2nd ed., pp. 81-106). New York: Routledge. Yalom, I. D. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. New York: BasicBooks. Yerxa, E. J., Clark, F., Frank, G., Jackson, J., Parham, D., Pierce, D., . . . Zemke, R. (1990). An introduction to occupational science: a foundation for occupational therapy in the 21st century. Occupational Therapy in Health Care, 6(1), 1-17.
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P
ersonal meaning is seen as a central characteristic of our day-to-day activities and can imbue our lives with meaning and foster well-being (Christiansen, Baum, & Bass-Haugen, 2005; Hasselkus, 2011; Townsend & Polatajko, 2007; Yerxa et al., 1990). Yet the nature of the ties linking meaningful activity to life meaning has not been well developed within occupational science or occupational therapy. This gap in knowledge may be due to definitional ambiguity surrounding the concept of meaningful activity (Eakman, 2012; Hammell, 2004; Leufstadius, Erlasnsson, Björkman, & Eklund, 2008). Furthermore, there has been limited theoretical synthesis and empirical study that explains the influence of meaningful activity on meaning in life. It is therefore of great importance to further
our understanding of these concepts, which in turn could support efforts to foster personal well-being. The purpose of the current study was to assert and empirically test a tentative theoretical model indicating that meaningful activity may affect meaning in life directly and indirectly as mediated by the fulfillment of basic psychological needs. A representation of the Meaningful Activity and Life Meaning (MALM) model can be seen in Figure 1. To advance this model, a brief review of its central constructs is offered below. Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives on Meaningful Activity From Occupational Therapy and Occupational Science The concept of meaningful activity is inherently difficult to define despite its ubiquitous use, espe-
Aaron M. Eakman, PhD, OTR, is Assistant Professor, Department of Occupational Therapy, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. Submitted: August 1, 2012; Accepted: January 22, 2013. The author has no financial or proprietary interest in the materials presented herein. Address correspondence to Aaron Eakman at [email protected]. doi: 10.3928/15394492-20130222-02
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cially within the profession of occupational therapy. However, there is a growing understanding that meaningful activity can be defined as a subjective experience composed of a breadth of unique and identifiable qualities (e.g., Eakman, 2012; Hammell, 2009; Leufstadius et al., 2008). The concept of meaningful activity reflects the idea that day-to day action comprises personal meanings or experiences. For example, Keilhofner (1985; p. 505) suggested the meaning of activities is reflected in “an individual’s disposition to find importance, security, worthiness and purpose in particular occupations,” whereas Christiansen and Baum (1997; p. 599) defined the meaning of activities as “the personal significance of an event as interpreted by an individual.” Others have suggested an array of subjective qualities reflect meaningful activity. The importance of identifying unique constellations of personal values and beliefs, interests, and life goals has been advocated by Jackson, Carlson, Mandel, Zemke, and Clark (1998). Further, experiences of pleasure and enjoyment, social connectedness, and competent completion of personal tasks may constitute meaningful activity (Persson, Erlandsson, Eklund, & Iwarsson, 2001). Qualitative researchers drawing from personal narratives have confirmed that meaningful activity may be composed of a breadth of subjective experiences. First, meaningful activity appears to have qualities of experience that are clearly social in nature, such as a sense of contributing to or caring for others and enjoyable social interactions (Aguilar, Boerema, & Harrison, 2010; Ludwig, Hattjar, Russell, & Winston, 2007). Second, aspects of meaningful activity reflect ideas of motivation and purposive action such as perceived control, success in task completion, and goal progress (Eakman, Carlson, & Clark, 2010; Leufstadius et al., 2008), which are often associated with experiences of pleasure and satisfaction (Reed, Hocking, & Smythe, 2010; Scheerer, Cahill, Kirby, & Lane, 2004). Finally, personal values and beliefs appear to influence how individuals experience meaningful activity (Bundgaard, 2005; Hannam, 1997; Jonsson, Borell, & Sadlo, 2000). In sum, the concept of meaningful activity can be understood as generally positive qualities of subjective experiences associated with human action or doing. Linking Meaningful Activity to Life Meaning Within the MALM model, meaningful activity is purported to directly influence meaning in life (see the bottom arrow in Figure 1). This section offers a brief introduction to the concept of meaning in life and its relationship to meaningful activity. Meaning
Figure 1. The Meaningful Activity and Life Meaning model.
in life tends to be defined as making sense, order, or coherence out of one’s existence and typically reflects the importance of purposive engagement in day-to-day life (Battista & Almond, 1973; Baumeister, 1991; Reker, Peacock, & Wong, 1987). Importantly, meaning in life has been identified as an essential aspect of psychological well-being with significant implications for mental and physical health (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002; Klinger, 2012). Meaning in life has also been identified as a critical outcome of a person’s engagement in activity (Hasselkus, 2011; Townsend & Polatajko, 2007; Yerxa et al., 1990). Occupational therapy and occupational science have clearly been influenced by existential philosophy that indicates meaningful activity is required for finding meaning in life. For example, Frankl (1959/1984) posited that one’s personal works and deeds, relationships with others, and attitudes taken toward day-to-day life influence life meaning. Further, Yalom (1980) argued that purposive action and persistence in making progress toward valued goals contributes to meaning in life. These propositions support the idea that the meaning we attribute to our lives is derived in great part through meaningful activity (Clark et al., 1991). Furthermore, meaningful activity and meaning in life appear to reflect two distinct yet related levels of human experience. That is, experiences derived through participation in day-to-day life are influenced by, and contribute to, a person’s evaluation of meaning in her or his life. The occupational value and life meaning model (Park, 2010; Persson et al., 2001) and meaning in life experiences model (King, 2004) offer important perspectives regarding this dichotomy. Within the Value and Meaning in Occupation (ValMO) model (Persson et al., 2001), perceptions of value derived through activity (e.g., satisfaction from completing an important task and feeling close to other individuals) are recognized as subjective experiences directly associated with everyday activi-
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ties (Persson & Erlandsson, 2010). Another proposition within the ValMO model indicates that these experiences of value contribute to life meaning. The model of meaning in life experiences proffered by King (2004) also conceives of doing and the experience of doing as central to the development of meaning in life. King further suggested that the satisfaction of human needs (e.g., autonomy, competence, and relatedness) through personal action is critical for developing meaning in life. Meaningful Activity, Basic Human Needs Fulfillment, and Life Meaning With the MALM model, meaningful activity contributes to meaning in life directly and indirectly by meeting basic psychological needs. This is consistent with other need-based perspectives linking the fulfillment of human needs, via activity, to life meaning and well-being (e.g., Baumeister, 1991; Hammell, 2009; King, 2004; Matuska & Christiansen, 2008). The MALM model incorporates ideas from SelfDetermination theory, a motivational framework that explores basic psychological needs fulfillment (Deci & Ryan, 1990, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Proponents of the theory have asserted that activity in pursuit of personally relevant goals is important for meeting the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. With respect to the MALM model, engagement in meaningful activity offers a means through which a person may fulfill her or his basic psychological needs. For example, activities that express personal values, are experienced as being autonomously chosen and competence is achieved, and connect a person to a social collective should contribute to the fulfillment of these needs. Furthermore, fulfillment of basic psychological needs partially mediates the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life (see the top arrows in Figure 1). This aspect of the MALM model reflects the understanding that basic psychological needs may have a direct and supportive effect on meaning in life (Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2008; Weinstein, Ryan, & Deci, 2012). Therefore, meaningful activity offers opportunities to fulfill basic psychological needs, which in turn affects meaning in life; as reviewed above, meaningful activity may also directly influence meaning in life. This brief review has asserted and succinctly framed a theoretical model linking meaningful activity to meaning in life. The purpose of this study was therefore to empirically evaluate three related hypotheses that may be drawn from the MALM model: (1) meaningful activity is associated with meaning in life, (2) meaningful activity is associated with basic
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psychological needs, and (3) the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life is, in part, mediated through basic psychological needs.
Methods Testing Procedures and Participants The current study adopted a cross-sectional, non-experimental correlational design. A total of 591 surveys were completed by undergraduate and graduate students enrolled at a mid-sized university in the Mountain West United States between March 2009 and August 2010 as part of three related studies approved by the institution’s Human Subjects Committee. Participants had to be enrolled at the University and be 18 years of age or older to be included in the study; there were no exclusion criteria. Personalized e-mail invitations were sent to randomly selected students, followed by two reminder e-mails sent within a 1-week time frame. Participants were provided a link to a web-based survey hosted by SurveyMonkey. Informed consent was established and participants completed one of five versions of randomly ordered survey instruments. The samples from each study were combined, resulting in a sample size of N = 591 for the current study. The response rate and the total number of individuals invited to complete the survey for the three studies were, respectively, 17.9% (682), 19.6% (1,143), and 15.6% (1,571), for an overall response rate of 17.4% (i.e., 591 of 3,396). Participants were on average 29.9 years of age (median = 27 years; range: 18 to 59 years); 59.5% were female and 54.4% were not married. Most were undergraduate students (66.3%) and a large majority of the sample was Caucasian (88%). The next largest racial/ethnic groups within the sample were Hispanic/Latino (4.7%), Asian (3.7%), and American Indian or Alaska Native (1.5%). Measures Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey (EMAS). The EMAS (Goldberg, Brintnell, & Goldberg, 2002) was used as a measurement-level indicator of meaningful activity. It is a 12-item survey that incorporates a breadth of items reflecting the construct of meaningful activity. Each of the 12 EMAS items begins with, “The activities I do…” and includes, respectively: help me take care of myself, reflect the kind of person I am, express my creativity, help me achieve something which gives me a sense of accomplishment, contribute to my feeling competent, are valued by other people, help other people, give me pleasure, give me a feeling of control, help me express my personal values, give me a sense of satisfaction, and have just the right amount of chal-
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lenge. EMAS test–retest reliability (r = .81) and internal consistency reliability (␣ = .88) have been good, and the scale demonstrates very good convergent and predictive validity (Eakman, 2011; Eakman & Eklund, 2012); evidence of the unidemensionality of the EMAS has been supported (Eakman, 2012). Respondents rated each EMAS item on a 5-point scale that included 1 (never), 2 (rarely), 3 (sometimes), 4 (usually), and 5 (always), which were subsequently recoded (1 = 1, 2 = 1, 3 = 2, 4 = 3, 5 = 4) for data analyses to enhance measurement precision as recommended by Eakman (2012). Basic Psychological Needs Scale (BPNS). The BPNS comprises three subscales that assess the constructs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness proposed by Deci and Ryan (2002; Ryan, 1995). It serves as the measurement-level indicator of the basic psychological needs latent variable. Examples of items reflecting each of the three basic psychological needs include: Autonomy: “I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life,” “I generally feel free to express my ideas and opinions,”; Competence: “I have been able to learn interesting new skills recently,” “Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from what I do”; and Relatedness: “I really like the people I interact with,” and “People in my life care about me.” The BPNS subscales have been shown to have adequate psychometric properties including internal consistency reliability and construct validity (Eakman, 2011; Gagne, 2003; Kashdan, Julian, Merritt, & Uswatte, 2006). The subscales consist of seven, six, and eight items, respectively, and respondents rated each item on a 7-point scale from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (very true); the BPNS subscale scores were generated according to the published algorithm (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MILQ). The MILQ is a 10-item scale that assesses both the presence of meaning in life (MILQ-P) and the search for meaning in life. For this study, only the MILQ-P was used for data analysis. The MILQ-P comprises five items that assess meaning in life defined as the sense made of, and significance felt, regarding the nature of one’s being and existence (Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006). The MILQ-P was administered along with the 5-item Search subscale of the MILQ (MILQ-S); the MILQ-S items were not used for analyses within the current study because they represent a personal search for meaning that was not a construct of interest. Examples of the MILQ-P items include: “I understand my life’s meaning,” “My life has a clear sense of purpose,” and “I have a good sense of what makes my life meaningful.” The items comprising the MILQ-P have been shown to assess a unidimensional
life meaning construct and the scale demonstrates good test–retest reliability (r = .86) and good internal consistency (␣ = .86). Respondents rated each of the five MILQ-P items on a 7-point scale from 1 (absolutely untrue) to 7 (absolutely true); MILQ-P scores were generated according to the published algorithm (Steger et al., 2006). Data Analysis Specification of the Latent Variable Measurement Model. Latent variable modeling is a class of the structural equation model (SEM), which offers robust statistical tools for assessing relationships among variables and may offer initial evidence of causal assumptions suggested by theory (Bollen, 1989). The foundation of the SEM latent variable is the measured variable (i.e., the specific indicator that is observed or assessed through a researcher’s data collection process). Latent variables generated within SEM modeling therefore reflect hypothetical constructs derived from the measurement-level variables (Kline, 2011; Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991). The meaningful activity latent variable was created by randomly assigning the 12 EMAS items to one of three parcels, summing those items, and dividing by four within each parcel to obtain three measurement-level indicators of meaningful activity. The three parcels were composed of the following EMAS items: EMAS parcel 1 (2, 4, 6, and 9), EMAS parcel 2 (1, 5, 7, and 12), and EMAS parcel 3 (3, 8, 10, and 11). The meaning in life latent variable was created using the five items of the MILQ-P as measurement-level indicators. The basic psychological needs latent variable was created using the three BPNS subscales (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) as measurement-level indicators. Estimation and Fit of the Latent Variable Path Model. The maximum likelihood procedure within the Mplus statistical package version 6.12 (Muthen & Muthen, 2011) was applied to the covariance matrix to estimate the SEM model and to provide indicators of overall model fit. The SEM latent variable path model tested in the current study reflects direct paths from meaningful activity to meaning in life and basic psychological needs and an indirect (partially mediated) path from meaningful activity through basic psychological needs to meaning in life. A significant test of a direct path cannot indicate that one construct causes change in another construct because of the cross-sectional design used in this study. However, a significant path offers empirical evidence to support the causal inferences suggested by theory (Bollen, 1989; Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006). Alternatively, the absence of a sig-
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Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Zero-Order Correlations Among 11 Measurement-Level Variables (N = 591)a Mean (SD)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
EMAS Parcel 1
2.72 (0.58)
1
2
EMAS Parcel 2
2.73 (0.52)
.78
1
3
EMAS Parcel 3
2.69 (0.63)
.76
.70
1
4
Autonomy
4.94 (0.98)
.48
.43
.46
1
5
Competence
5.18 (0.99)
.58
.52
.50
.64
1
6
Relatedness
5.55 (0.91)
.49
.46
.44
.67
.65
1
7
MILQ-P 1
5.35 (1.46)
.39
.37
.34
.35
.40
.34
1
8
MILQ-P 4
5.26 (1.50)
.38
.37
.34
.36
.40
.35
.72
1
9
MILQ-P 5
5.66 (1.29)
.36
.34
.31
.39
.40
.39
.69
.77
1
10
MILQ-P 6
5.30 (1.48)
.42
.38
.39
.35
.41
.35
.68
.75
.73
1
11
MILQ-P 9
5.67 (1.58)
.37
.34
.33
.38
.44
.41
.57
.62
.54
.58
11
1
SD = standard deviation; EMAS = Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey; MILQ-P = Meaning in Life Questionnaire – Presence subscale; a p < .001 for all.
nificant path would provide substantive evidence that would challenge the assumptions proposed by a researcher. Model fit was evaluated with reference to the comparative fit index (CFI) where values greater than .95 are considered excellent (Bentler, 1990), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), where values .05 or less are considered good fit, and standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) with values less than .05 are considered well fitting (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen, 2008). The chi-square statistic was also computed, yet given the large sample size the relative 2 (calculated as 2/df) was used with a value of 5 or less indicating good fit (Hooper et al., 2008). The measurement-level data satisfied normality assumptions, which is a critical concern within the SEM modeling procedures employed in this study. Test of Mediation Within the Latent Variable Path Model. SEM latent variable path modeling also offers a tool to test for an indirect or mediated path of influence from one construct to another (Kline, 2011; Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006). Finding a significant indirect path offers evidence to suggest that one construct (e.g., meaningful activity) may, in part, influence another construct (e.g., meaning in life) through an intermediary construct (e.g., basic psychological needs). Mediation within the structural path model was estimated within the Mplus program using the Delta (Sobel) method (MacKinnon, 2008; Sobel, 1982) and following the process set forth by Baron and Kenny (1986). This approach offers estimates of total effect, as well as decomposed direct and indirect effects of meaningful activity on meaning in life. Because it was also hypothesized that part of the
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relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life occurs via a direct (unmediated) path, a comparison with an alternative trimmed model (i.e., absence of a direct path from meaningful activity to meaning in life) was tested with the chi-square difference statistic (Kline, 2011). An elevation in the chisquare estimate in the trimmed model, compared to the full model, would indicate model fit is significantly degraded with the absence of a direct path from meaningful activity to meaning in life.
Results Estimation and Fit of the SEM Latent Variable Path Model The means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among the 11 measurement-level indicators are reported in Table 1. The three EMAS parcels were highly correlated (mean r = .75), followed in level of association by the five MILQ-P items (mean r = .67) and the three BPNS indicators of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (mean r = .65). The Mplus software also generates zero-order correlations among the latent variables. The meaningful activity latent variable was moderately correlated with basic psychological needs (r = .70) and meaning in life (r = .50); basic psychological needs and meaning in life were also moderately correlated (r = .56) with p < .001 for all. The standardized loadings of each indicator (e.g., EMAS parcels 1, 2 and 3) on its respective factors (e.g., meaningful activity) were moderately high to very high, ranging from .69 to .92 (mean = .83) (Figure 2). Standardized loadings can be interpreted as the zero-order correlation between each indicator and the latent variable they were intended to reflect and evi-
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Figure 2. Estimated model (N = 591). Factor loadings on the latent variables and the paths among the latent variables are standardized; p < .001 for all. EMAS = Engagement in Meaningful Activities Survey parcels, MLQ-P = Meaning in Life Questionnaire–Presence subscale items; †: an additional indirect effect of meaningful activity through basic psychological needs on meaning in life = .29, p < .001.
dence of moderate to high loadings support the use of latent variables for subsequent analysis. The first two research hypotheses were supported by the results of this study as evidenced by the very good to excellent SEM fit indices. The SEM fit indices were as follows: CFI = .989 (values > .95 are considered excellent), RMSEA = .045; 90% confidence interval: .032 - .057 (values ⭐ .05 are considered good fit), and SRMR = .030 (values < .05 are considered well fitting). The chi-square statistic was elevated 2(41, N = 591) = 89.70, p < .0001, which was not unanticipated for such a large sample size. The relative 2 was 2.19, indicating excellent model fit. Test of Mediation Within the SEM Latent Variable Path Model The research hypothesis that basic psychological needs would partially mediate the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life was also supported. The SEM latent variable path model estimates can be found in Figure 2. The standardized effect of meaningful activity on basic psychological needs was .70 (p < .001), whereas the standardized total effect of meaningful activity on meaning in life was .50 (p < .001). When the effects of meaningful activity on meaning in life were decomposed, it was
demonstrated that basic psychological needs partially mediated this relationship. Specifically, there was a direct effect of meaningful activity on meaning in life (.21; p < .001) in addition to a mediated effect of meaningful activity on meaning in life operating through basic psychological needs (.29; p < .001). The relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life was best explained by a combined direct path and indirect path through basic psychological needs. The trimmed model resulted in a 2 difference of 11.82; df = 1, p < .001, indicating the loss of a direct path from meaningful activity to meaning in life significantly increased the model 2, therefore reflecting a poorer model fit. All disturbances that reflect unknown causes and score unreliability are indicated within the small circles in Figure 2. Finally, meaningful activity explained nearly 50% of the variance in basic psychological needs and together meaningful activity and basic psychological needs explained 34% of the variance in meaning in life.
Discussion The current study offered and empirically tested the MALM model, which indicated that meaningful activity may affect meaning in life directly and
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indirectly as mediated by the fulfillment of basic psychological needs. It was found that meaningful activity is associated with both basic psychological needs and meaning in life. Further, the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life may indeed occur through two pathways. The first pathway may be that meaningful activity directly affects meaning in life. The second pathway may be that meaningful activity affects the fulfillment of basic psychological needs, which in turn influences meaning in life. Meaningful activity is a concept central to the processes and outcomes of occupational therapy (American Occupational Therapy Association, 2008; Townsend & Polatajko, 2007). Yet progress in understanding the mechanisms through which meaningful activity influences well-being, specifically meaning in life, has lagged due in part to difficulties with clearly defining and validly assessing meaningful activity. The current study adds to our understanding of meaningful activity by conceptualizing it as a subjective phenomenon comprising a breadth of qualities of experience. The EMAS was used as the measurement-level indicator of meaningful activity, and this scale has been shown to validly and reliably detect individual differences (Eakman, 2012). As an example of the breadth of the EMAS, two of its items reflect socially related meanings that have been identified within the fields of occupational therapy and occupational science as important aspects of activity (e.g., Hammell, 2004; Hasselkus, 2011). Socially related experiences associated with activity have also been identified within theories of motivation, psychological development, and well-being. These theories indicate that socially related experiences linked to human action are critical factors influencing perceptions of meaning in life (Baumeister, 1991; Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2008; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). The EMAS additionally taps into affective experience (i.e., pleasure), the expression of deeply held personal values, just right challenge, and a sense of control, which is in agreement with a variety of theorists (Bandura, 1997; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, 2010). Consistent with this study’s findings, these qualities of meaningful activity may serve a critical role in supporting meaning in life (King, Hicks, Krull, & Del Gaiso, 2006; Persson et al., 2001). Unique to this study, however, is empirical support for the MALM model in which it was asserted that fulfillment of basic psychological needs may partly mediate the relationship between meaningful activity and meaning in life. Notably, this indirect path accounted for nearly 30% more
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variance compared to the direct influence of meaningful activity on meaning in life. The presence of an indirect partially mediated path between meaningful activity and meaning in life is important for two key reasons. First, meaningful activity may assert a positive influence on well-being by fulfilling basic psychological needs. As mentioned above, meaningful activity includes the expression of personal identity and personal values that are consistent with the Self-Determination theory concept of autonomy. A sense of accomplishment and just right challenge found through meaningful activity may serve to support competence needs, whereas aspects of meaningful activity perceived as being valued by and of benefit to other individuals likely support needs for relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Proponents of Self-Determination theory have also suggested that fulfillment of basic psychological needs, in part, offers essential content to purposeful action which, in turn, imbues life with meaning (Ryan et al., 2008). This perspective highlights the idea that purposeful activity in and of itself may not be the critical mechanism through which activity contributes to a sense of life meaning and wellbeing. Rather, purposeful action that is supportive of an individual’s basic psychological need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness likely contributes to perceptions that one’s life is rich with personal meaning (Weinstein et al., 2012). Second, the presence of a significant direct path within the MALM model indicates meaningful activity may afford a unique effect on meaning in life separate from basic psychological needs. The EMAS incorporates items that have been associated with meaning in life yet are not directly circumscribed by Self-Determination theory. For example, experiences of pleasure (e.g., positive affect) may arise through the successful pursuit of personally valued goals and therefore play a significant role in higher experiences such as meaning in life (King et al., 2006; Steger, Kashdan, & Oishi, 2004). Also, opportunities to engage in creative expression through activities may infuse life with meaning by offering positive emotional feedback (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Finally, the construct of meaningful activity adopted in this study reflects one approach to personal meaning, yet other perspectives will be useful for developing the MALM model. For example, individuals are capable of experiencing anxiety, boredom, and sadness within their day-to-day activities (Borrell, Lilja, Svidén, & Sadlo, 2001; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Martin, Sadlo, & Stew, 2006; Persson & Jonsson, 2009). These forms of meaning in activity may arise when individuals fail to achieve their personal
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goals or lose close personal relationships (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Solomon, 2006). The MALM model will therefore need to be expanded to reflect a broader range of meaning associated with activity. There are limitations to the current study that should be considered. First, because of its crosssectional design, assertions of causal relationships among the constructs could not be verified. However, the theory underlying the MALM model does suggest that meaningful activity should influence basic psychological needs fulfillment and contribute to meaning in life. Empirical support for the MALM model within this study offers initial evidence in support of this claim. Nonetheless, the nature and extent of casual associations cannot be determined without judiciously employing longitudinal and experimental designs (MacKinnon, Fairchild, & Fritz, 2007). For example, it is also possible that existing repertoires of activity were selected and pursued (intrinsically motivated) because of the capacity of those activities to satisfy basic psychological needs (Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000). Additionally, other factors that were not measured within this study (i.e., positive affect) may assert unique effects on meaningful activity, basic psychological needs, and meaning in life. Therefore, future research should incorporate indicators that may further our understanding of the relationships among these constructs. A second limitation relates to the generalizability of the study’s findings because the sample was composed of university undergraduate and graduate students from the Mountain West United States, of which an overwhelming majority were Caucasian. A process of randomly selecting participants aided in obtaining a relatively representative university sample, but low response rates may have mitigated this quality to some degree. It is recommended that future research include more ethnically and culturally diverse samples. Researchers should also include individuals who are more likely to experience participation restrictions. This line of study could increase our understanding of how meaningful activity influences human needs fulfillment and life meaning for individuals living with disabilities. Finally, future research should consider adopting additional indicators of both meaningful activity and well-being to more broadly explore the relationships among these constructs.
Conclusion Within this study, the MALM model was proposed, which links meaningful activity to the fulfillment of basic psychological needs and the support
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