WORK A Journal of Prevention,
Assessment & Rehabilitation
ELSEVIER
Work 8 (J 997) 181-187
Stimulating adult development in the workplace through critical thinking Lorraine Dagostino a,*, James Carifio b b University
a Nashua, New Hampshire, USA of Massachusetts-Lowell, Lowel/, Massachusetts, USA
Received 18 March 1996; accepted 7 April 1996
Abstract The workplace often requires the use of critical thinking which, in turn, may stimulate certain aspects of adult development. This article proposes several characteristics of critical thinking that may contribute to adult development as it occurs in the workplace. The concepts considered apply to managers and workers in a variety of situations. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved
Keywords: Work; Critical thinking; Adult development
1. Introduction Work is a multidimensional activity and context that often leads to a web of intricate relationships and challenges (Jacques and Cason, 1994). Adjusting to these relationships and handling these challenges often requires critical reflection and judgment of the kind that should, if used appropriately, stimulate adult development (Cross, 1981). When the workplace does present, and appropriately use these opportunities, one should see transformation or growth in workers. Such growth, moreover, should improve the individual and collective productivity of the workplace. The
* Corresponding author. 17 Royal Crest Drive, # 10 Nashua, New Hampshire 03060, Tel.: + 1 603 891 2139.
purpose of this article is to identify the elements of critical thinking inherent in making many of the judgments that must be made in today's workplace and to suggest which aspects of adult development may emerge with such thinking. The concept of work underlying this discussion centers on the efforts of an individual to use mental abilities to direct increasingly complex tasks to achieve the goal of productivity as measured by providing goods and services in the workplace. The aspects of critical thinking focused upon in this article are primarily assessment of present situations in light of decisions that must be made to meet both well-defined and uncertain goals given available resources. The need to use this kind of thinking directly contributes to an individual's development in three areas: (1) personal growth; (2) inter-relational growth; and (3) task-related be-
1051-9815/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved PII S 1051-9815(96) 00234-3
182
L. Dagostino, 1. Carifio / Work 8 (J997) 181-187
haviors, When critical thinking and general development merge we see a greater capacity to handle the complex problem-solving tasks of the workplace. 2. Aspects of critical thinking relevant to the workplace The use of critical thinking in the workplace is characterized by managers and workers who exhibit specific behaviors that lead to the resolution of problems or address short and long term planning and challenges. Achieving short and long term goals, as well as the resolution of specific problems, are the key objectives to productivity in any work environment. The specific aspects of critical thinking that may lead to enhanced productivity are manifested in the following ways: 1) the ability to handle change; 2) the ability to rethink habits; 3) self-examination of behavior and ways of thinking; 4) creating alternatives; 5) thinking things through; 6) strategic planning and setting goals; 7) demonstration of specific intellectual and personal traits; 8) reflecting on the consequences of decisions (Brookfield, 1987; Merriam and Caffarella, 1991; Paul, 1993).
Central to each of these characteristics is the habit of challenging assumptions where such challenges allow for rethinking problems and ideas by transforming a given perspective on a situation (Hogarth, 1980). Obviously, the organization must be open to and tolerant of such constructive challenging of assumptions so that this basic need could be said to be the primary habit of an effective organization. Underlying this habit is an individual's control of the judgmental biases that influence mixing objectivity and intuition in reflection and decision-making. The first concern, therefore, is to characterize these behaviors and then to relate them to the notions of challenging assumptions and con-
trolling judgmental biases. 2.1. The ability to handle changes
Critical thinking brings a positive view of needed change to work situations so that complex changing conditions can be evaluated and responded to appropriately. In general we must learn to adapt to flux in a changing, competitive and innovative economy and workplace rather than seek permanence in our environment. Seeking permanence assumes that there are never any new developments that impact our work and the way we must handle resources. We are not proposing change for change sake; we are encouraging adjustment and handling needed change. Handling changes also requires multiple leadership styles that respond to the demands of different contexts and situations. These multiple leadership styles help us interact with the variety of people that we work with as well as the different environments and situations that we encounter. This multiplicity of styles requires the openness associated with the kind of critical thinking necessary for handling change. 2. 2. The ability of rethink habits Critical thinking means continuously rethinking familiar and habitual ways and taking issue with underlying assumptions and goals. It means loosening rigidities and established algorithms to rethink fixed belief systems and associated behaviors. This rethinking of habits leads to innovative and sometimes even creative problem-solving. Adhering to old habits suggests a kind of permanence that does not exist in many modem workplaces, and hinders innovations that lead to more efficient and effective functioning. Perhaps the most famous example of the ability to rethink habits is the 3-M company and the ways in which it has transformed its line of business and innovated new products in the last 20 years. The 'stick it' note paper and PC diskettes were the results of purposely attempting to break the habit of being a 'glue and tape' organization and thinking critically about the organization's abilities, markets and customer needs.
L. Dagostino, J. Carifio / Work 8 (1997) 181-187
23. Self-examination of behavior and ways of thinking
Critical thinking raises our consciousness about our abilities and delineating self-deception. Consequently, we reach and struggle for self-improvement which in turn improves the contribution to solving problems and carrying out tasks. This self-examination helps us identify shortcomings that may be improved or compensated for. It also allows us to recognize when we have developed our skills and knowledge enough to take on more complex tasks. Examining how we conceptualize problems and process information may be a necessary step for helping us to rethink old habits as well as to develop the requisite skills to do so. Such examination of the way that we think may lead us to bolder approaches and clearer reasoning in the analysis needed for planning new initiatives. This type of critical thinking, inventiveness, and creativity skills can be taught at some level to most people, and that it is necessary to do so. 2.4. Creating alternatives
Critical thinking typically leads to discovery rather than simple acceptance of conditions and present thinking. It requires counter-thinking, opposition and challenge so that solutions and new ideas can emerge. This interactive process leads to the creation of the unexpected from divergent thinking. Creating alternatives also leads to strategic planning where there is an attempt to project future scenarios and planning responses. Without future scenarios our work remains visionless and without a clear picture of hoped for outcomes.
2.5. Thinking things through Thinking things through requires self-disciplined, open-minded thoughts rooted in disciplined reasoning. It means being able to separate fact from opinion, data and interpretation, evidence and conclusion as well as information from knowledge. This aspect of critical thinking re-
183
quires seeing relationships and consequences of each step of a process and learning the difference between knowledge and belief. Envisioning how a process unfolds step by step helps us to predict obstacles before we initiate our plans. 26. Strategic planning and setting goals
Strategic planning requires a high degree of analytical skill where a worker or manager predicts the potential obstacles to reaching a goal and makes decisions about how to use available resources to reach an appropriate level of productivity within a specified time frame. The omission of such planning and the ability to do such planning usually is wasteful of available resources because people and materials are not used to their fullest. 2 7. Demonstration of specific intellectual and personal traits Critical thinking requires courage, perseverance and integrity as well as the ability to accept unwanted, unpleasant or unexpected conclusions, to adjust behavior and thinking accordingly. The individual must be a calculated risk-taker. Constant evaluation of data and context is necessary for drawing conclusions and taking decisive action. These processes require high levels of analysis and synthesis on a regular basis. 28. Reflecting on the consequences of decisions
Projecting the outcomes of specific actions and decisions is at the heart of effective decision-making where one develops the ability to ask questions and anticipate results at times when the situation is ambiguous and the results unquantifiable. Once decisions are made and action is taken, the results of those decisions must be analyzed and evaluated so that further decisionmaking can occur. When decisions have been bad ones it is imperative that the thinking and projections influencing them be re-examined. This kind of reflective thinking is key to reducing error in further decisionmaking.
184
L. Dagostino.i. Carifio j Work 8 (J997) 181-187
3. Underlying habits of critical thinking Underlying these aspects of critical thinking are two important habits: (1) challenging assumptions and (2) controlling judgmental biases (Hogarth, 1980).
a particular outcome is a final potential source of bias. Each of these points in the decisionmaking process is a juncture requiring some aspect of critical thinking to maintain objectivity. Each of these points also is a stage where our biases influence the degree of general bias and the potential for error that enters our decisionmaking.
3.1. Challenging assumptions 4. Encouraging adult development Assumptions are what we believe to be the givens in specific situations. When managers or workers are planning they must constantly reassess the assumptions they hold about the stability and reliability of the context in which they are working and the resources available to them to reach their goal. If the assumptions are not correct, serious mishaps can occur or important opportunities may be missed. Each of the characteristics of critical thinking identified here are driven by questioning the assumptions that we hold. Not all of the assumptions that we hold must be abandoned, but they must be examined each time we set new goals and try to find solutions to problems. Understanding these assumptions helps us to evaluate the probability of success of our plans prior to taking action. 3.2. Controlling judgmental bias Controlling judgmental bias also is crucial for predicting potential productivity levels that may be achieved and the extent of the potential business and the specific market value of one's goods or services. What might be helpful here is to pinpoint some places in decisionmaking that are most susceptible to judgmental bias. Bias in making judgments may occur at various stages of decisionmaking. First, the general background of the decisionmaker shapes the conceptualization of the kind of decision being made. Second, the selection and rejection of information used to evaluate a situation contributes to an outcome. Third, the organization and processing of data influences the generalizations or conclusions that might be drawn about a situation. Fourth, the general attitude and level of wishful thinking for
Adult development is related to change that leads to self-actualization and an integrated sense of ego. It does not necessarily have an end point (Strom et aI., 1987). Instead it appears to be a phenomenon consisting of continuing change and growth that is a response to shifting occurrences of life and work. To the extent that managers and workers develop the critical thinking skills delineated in the first part of this article there is a greater potential for further individual development and greater individual and collective productivity in the workplace. The kind of adult development we are interested in manifests itself in at least three areas: (1) personal growth; (2) interrelational growth; and (3) task-related behaviors. Each of these dimensions has some bearing on an individual's work and also coincide with the development and use of the critical thinking skills identified in the first part of this paper. Crucial to each of these dimensions of development is an underlying principle that is comparable to challenging assumptions and controlling judgmental bias. This principle is that individuals develop the ability to transform their perspective relative to an issue or a problem, and to shift focus from self to the problem. Transforming one's perspective means recognizing multiple points of view and selecting a workable perspective. Doing this helps to remove too much self-centered thinking that may interfere with a thorough analysis of the situation as well as an outcome that is not realistic in light of the available resources. Being able to transform selfperspective mUltiplies the potential for various solutions to a problem or the number of plans that may be generated. Transforming perspectives is akin to the underlying habits of challenging
L. Dagostino. 1. Carifio / Work 8 (1997) 181-187
assumptions and controlling judgmental bias, both of which require maintaining distance from a situation or problem to advance toward the goal. In the area of personal growth we see the development of: (a) general maturity; (b) acceptance of responsibility; (c) increased sense of security; and (d) more taking initiative. General maturity, where there is sound thinking and emotional stability, contributes to a rationality in thinking so that distinction between emotional and intellectual responses to a situation are made (Overstreet, 1984). This general maturity leads to accepting responsibility where individuals see things through to completion and guide the process in which one is engaged. The individual realistically and accurately assesses and takes into account the impact and the consequences of recommended changes, actions and non-actions. As the individual achieves well-defined goals established by taking responsibility a greater sense of security develops. Having this security means having an inner strength that is devoid of excessive anxiety about oneself and about the skills related to a particular job. If secure, one can be challenged and confidently defend one's position without constantly seeking the approval of others. Developing this sense of security is essential to making independent decisions with confidence. This confidence leads to the individual taking the initiative on solving more problems or developing the plans needed to reach more goals. This means generating ideas and having the motivation to act upon those ideas. Individuals who take initiative generally are goal-oriented people who focus on particular situations, determine actions as important or unimportant to a large enterprise, and then propose plans. A high degree of self-management and discipline usually accompanies taking initiative because responsibility for the success of a plan rests with the initiator. Perseverance, functioning autonomously and flexibility are central to maintaining effort, taking independent action and implementing plans. Without taking initiatives guided by some of these characteristics, there is not a clearly calculated response to everyday fluctuations in the workplace. In addition to personal growth, development also should occur in interrelational growth where
185
the individual learns several things. They are: (1) socialization to the general culture; (2) socialization to peers and supervisors; (3) balancing selfinterest with the common good; (4) balancing cooperative-competitive behavior; (5) sharing efforts with others; (6) engaging in give and take exchanges; and (7) exhibiting highly supportive and helpful behavior. Socialization to the general culture as well as to peers and supervisors means that managers and workers develop an understanding of the general attitudes about work in a particular environment. This requires the individual to recognize the function that work serves in a particular community, either ethnic or socio-economic. Doing so influences planning, goal-setting and the selection of strategies for problem-solving. For example, when work is seen as a means to making a living, rather than as an extension of the individual's identity and worth, incentives take a different form. The desire to meet performance standards derive from a different source, too. In the case of unskilled day laborers we may not see the same degree of self-motivation and direction as we do with more skilled, creative or professional help. Managers as well as workers must find ways to integrate their skills and attitudes with peers and supervisors. Where projects are extensive, each person must be willing to contribute and accept responsibility for the contribution. Because most work environments need some degree of cooperation, the individuals involved must have formal and informal mechanisms for synthesizing different points of view and resolving conflicts so that tasks can be completed and the product can take a useful form. Both balancing self-interest with the common good and balancing cooperative-competitive behavior govern the nature of group dynamics in the workplace. When there is much individual recognition and reward, a competitive spirit enters the interactions. Such a competitive spirit may spur productivity and higher performance. However, if individuals pursue goals in the name of self-interest rather than the common good, some of the necessary cooperative behavior for various projects breaks down and less harmonious working environments may emerge. However,
186
L. Dagostino.]. Carifio j Work 8 (J997) 181-187
some group competition can produce a multiplicity of creative ideas that enhance problem-solving and productivity. Sharing efforts with others, a form of cooperative behavior usually improves everyone's individual or group effort and has positive long-term efforts for general production. Correlated with this sharing behavior is the willingness to give and take in making contributions so that no one person is contributing more than the others. Finally, when new projects are being implemented everyone involved will be learning. This requires that the individual be supportive of each other's efforts and help them when help is needed. People withdraw from taking risks and initiative if they are always confronted with the unsupportive naysayer or critic. Finally, there also seems to be some corresponding development in task-related behaviors. At least several areas seem to be affected. They are: (1) general productivity; (2) skills, knowledge and proficiency; (3) setting standards for performance; (4) problem-solving ability; (5) learning to created manageable tasks; and (6) tolerating and managing ambiguity in the task environment. The goal of all work is productivity, both in terms of quantity and quality, where productivity is a measure of the individual's contribution to the overall effort. Productivity is measureable and may have a variety of indicators. The good manager implements strategies that guide workers to maintain a pre-determined level of production in terms of profits or services. To be productive both managers and workers must demonstrate a minimum level of skill that can be improved upon with training and experience. Skill is usually enhanced by having related knowledge and it is assessed to be adequate when the individual demonstrates an acceptable level of proficiency that is, where the tasks are completed in an efficient and effective manner at an acceptable cost of resources. As managers and workers develop, they begin to have a sense of the acceptable standards to be achieved. At first, these standards may be imposed from the outside. But, eventually, individuals must establish some internal guide as they approach new tasks so that measures of achieving acceptable productivity are
inherent in all of their functioning. In addition to these three basic task-related behaviors we see three more complex behaviors emerge. The first one, problem-solving ability, is demanded when things do not go smoothly from start to finish. When problems occur people must be able to reason their way to resolutions for productivity to be maintained. This means having technical and interpersonal skill to move things along. It also means having the skill to frame the problem so that potential solutions can be tried at minimal cost. The next more complex task-related behavior is learning to create manageable tasks. Often goals represent the end product of several intermediate tasks neither manageable in one 'fell swoop' nor by one or two people. Knowing how to delegate the work and sequence the activities is crucial physically and psychologically to completing most tasks. Part of strategic planning involves this kind of behavior or tasks will be too overwhelming to carry out. Handling increasingly complex tasks is the long range goal of creating manageable tasks or dividing large tasks into more manageable ones. The final task-related behavior that is stimulated by critical thinking is tolerating and managing ambiguity in the task environment. Sometimes the next step in pursuing new ventures is not clear, and it emerges only as you move toward the goal. Some problems will create confusion and require careful rethinking for resolution. Tolerating the uncertainty and ambiguity of uncontrollable forces that underlie some of this confusion is crucial to creative management and work. 5. The workplace
Achieving the kind of adult development described here means developing and incorporating the previously identified characteristics of critical thinking into our everyday functioning. It means increasing behaviors that transform perspectives on a problem so that various points of view are examined carefully and as objectively as possible. Judgmental bias must be assessed and controlled for these aspects of adult development to merge because they require an openness that is contrary to the concept of bias.
L. Dagostino, j, Carifio / Work 8 (J997) 181-187
All of these characteristics of thinking and development have a place in creating the conditions for effective management and work in the workplace. The type of workplace that encourages the development described also supports innovation, creativity and flexibility, all of which are products of critical thinking and necessary for a productive workplace. References Brookfield, S.D. (1981) Developing Critical Thinkers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
187
Cross, K.P. (1987) Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation and Facilitating Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hogarth, R (1980) Judgement and Choice. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Jaques, E. and Cason, K. (1994) Human Capabilities. Virginia: Cason Hall. Merriam, S.E. and Caffarella, R.S. (1991) Learning In Adulthood. San Fransico: Jossey-Bass. Overstreet, H.A. (1984) The Mature Mind. New York: W.W. Norton. Paul, R (1993) Critical Thinking. California: Foundation For Critical Thinking. Strom, RD., Bernard, H.W. and Strom, S.K. (1987) Human Development and Learning. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Assessment & Rehabilitation
ELSEVIER
Work 8 (J 997) 181-187
Stimulating adult development in the workplace through critical thinking Lorraine Dagostino a,*, James Carifio b b University
a Nashua, New Hampshire, USA of Massachusetts-Lowell, Lowel/, Massachusetts, USA
Received 18 March 1996; accepted 7 April 1996
Abstract The workplace often requires the use of critical thinking which, in turn, may stimulate certain aspects of adult development. This article proposes several characteristics of critical thinking that may contribute to adult development as it occurs in the workplace. The concepts considered apply to managers and workers in a variety of situations. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved
Keywords: Work; Critical thinking; Adult development
1. Introduction Work is a multidimensional activity and context that often leads to a web of intricate relationships and challenges (Jacques and Cason, 1994). Adjusting to these relationships and handling these challenges often requires critical reflection and judgment of the kind that should, if used appropriately, stimulate adult development (Cross, 1981). When the workplace does present, and appropriately use these opportunities, one should see transformation or growth in workers. Such growth, moreover, should improve the individual and collective productivity of the workplace. The
* Corresponding author. 17 Royal Crest Drive, # 10 Nashua, New Hampshire 03060, Tel.: + 1 603 891 2139.
purpose of this article is to identify the elements of critical thinking inherent in making many of the judgments that must be made in today's workplace and to suggest which aspects of adult development may emerge with such thinking. The concept of work underlying this discussion centers on the efforts of an individual to use mental abilities to direct increasingly complex tasks to achieve the goal of productivity as measured by providing goods and services in the workplace. The aspects of critical thinking focused upon in this article are primarily assessment of present situations in light of decisions that must be made to meet both well-defined and uncertain goals given available resources. The need to use this kind of thinking directly contributes to an individual's development in three areas: (1) personal growth; (2) inter-relational growth; and (3) task-related be-
1051-9815/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved PII S 1051-9815(96) 00234-3
182
L. Dagostino, 1. Carifio / Work 8 (J997) 181-187
haviors, When critical thinking and general development merge we see a greater capacity to handle the complex problem-solving tasks of the workplace. 2. Aspects of critical thinking relevant to the workplace The use of critical thinking in the workplace is characterized by managers and workers who exhibit specific behaviors that lead to the resolution of problems or address short and long term planning and challenges. Achieving short and long term goals, as well as the resolution of specific problems, are the key objectives to productivity in any work environment. The specific aspects of critical thinking that may lead to enhanced productivity are manifested in the following ways: 1) the ability to handle change; 2) the ability to rethink habits; 3) self-examination of behavior and ways of thinking; 4) creating alternatives; 5) thinking things through; 6) strategic planning and setting goals; 7) demonstration of specific intellectual and personal traits; 8) reflecting on the consequences of decisions (Brookfield, 1987; Merriam and Caffarella, 1991; Paul, 1993).
Central to each of these characteristics is the habit of challenging assumptions where such challenges allow for rethinking problems and ideas by transforming a given perspective on a situation (Hogarth, 1980). Obviously, the organization must be open to and tolerant of such constructive challenging of assumptions so that this basic need could be said to be the primary habit of an effective organization. Underlying this habit is an individual's control of the judgmental biases that influence mixing objectivity and intuition in reflection and decision-making. The first concern, therefore, is to characterize these behaviors and then to relate them to the notions of challenging assumptions and con-
trolling judgmental biases. 2.1. The ability to handle changes
Critical thinking brings a positive view of needed change to work situations so that complex changing conditions can be evaluated and responded to appropriately. In general we must learn to adapt to flux in a changing, competitive and innovative economy and workplace rather than seek permanence in our environment. Seeking permanence assumes that there are never any new developments that impact our work and the way we must handle resources. We are not proposing change for change sake; we are encouraging adjustment and handling needed change. Handling changes also requires multiple leadership styles that respond to the demands of different contexts and situations. These multiple leadership styles help us interact with the variety of people that we work with as well as the different environments and situations that we encounter. This multiplicity of styles requires the openness associated with the kind of critical thinking necessary for handling change. 2. 2. The ability of rethink habits Critical thinking means continuously rethinking familiar and habitual ways and taking issue with underlying assumptions and goals. It means loosening rigidities and established algorithms to rethink fixed belief systems and associated behaviors. This rethinking of habits leads to innovative and sometimes even creative problem-solving. Adhering to old habits suggests a kind of permanence that does not exist in many modem workplaces, and hinders innovations that lead to more efficient and effective functioning. Perhaps the most famous example of the ability to rethink habits is the 3-M company and the ways in which it has transformed its line of business and innovated new products in the last 20 years. The 'stick it' note paper and PC diskettes were the results of purposely attempting to break the habit of being a 'glue and tape' organization and thinking critically about the organization's abilities, markets and customer needs.
L. Dagostino, J. Carifio / Work 8 (1997) 181-187
23. Self-examination of behavior and ways of thinking
Critical thinking raises our consciousness about our abilities and delineating self-deception. Consequently, we reach and struggle for self-improvement which in turn improves the contribution to solving problems and carrying out tasks. This self-examination helps us identify shortcomings that may be improved or compensated for. It also allows us to recognize when we have developed our skills and knowledge enough to take on more complex tasks. Examining how we conceptualize problems and process information may be a necessary step for helping us to rethink old habits as well as to develop the requisite skills to do so. Such examination of the way that we think may lead us to bolder approaches and clearer reasoning in the analysis needed for planning new initiatives. This type of critical thinking, inventiveness, and creativity skills can be taught at some level to most people, and that it is necessary to do so. 2.4. Creating alternatives
Critical thinking typically leads to discovery rather than simple acceptance of conditions and present thinking. It requires counter-thinking, opposition and challenge so that solutions and new ideas can emerge. This interactive process leads to the creation of the unexpected from divergent thinking. Creating alternatives also leads to strategic planning where there is an attempt to project future scenarios and planning responses. Without future scenarios our work remains visionless and without a clear picture of hoped for outcomes.
2.5. Thinking things through Thinking things through requires self-disciplined, open-minded thoughts rooted in disciplined reasoning. It means being able to separate fact from opinion, data and interpretation, evidence and conclusion as well as information from knowledge. This aspect of critical thinking re-
183
quires seeing relationships and consequences of each step of a process and learning the difference between knowledge and belief. Envisioning how a process unfolds step by step helps us to predict obstacles before we initiate our plans. 26. Strategic planning and setting goals
Strategic planning requires a high degree of analytical skill where a worker or manager predicts the potential obstacles to reaching a goal and makes decisions about how to use available resources to reach an appropriate level of productivity within a specified time frame. The omission of such planning and the ability to do such planning usually is wasteful of available resources because people and materials are not used to their fullest. 2 7. Demonstration of specific intellectual and personal traits Critical thinking requires courage, perseverance and integrity as well as the ability to accept unwanted, unpleasant or unexpected conclusions, to adjust behavior and thinking accordingly. The individual must be a calculated risk-taker. Constant evaluation of data and context is necessary for drawing conclusions and taking decisive action. These processes require high levels of analysis and synthesis on a regular basis. 28. Reflecting on the consequences of decisions
Projecting the outcomes of specific actions and decisions is at the heart of effective decision-making where one develops the ability to ask questions and anticipate results at times when the situation is ambiguous and the results unquantifiable. Once decisions are made and action is taken, the results of those decisions must be analyzed and evaluated so that further decisionmaking can occur. When decisions have been bad ones it is imperative that the thinking and projections influencing them be re-examined. This kind of reflective thinking is key to reducing error in further decisionmaking.
184
L. Dagostino.i. Carifio j Work 8 (J997) 181-187
3. Underlying habits of critical thinking Underlying these aspects of critical thinking are two important habits: (1) challenging assumptions and (2) controlling judgmental biases (Hogarth, 1980).
a particular outcome is a final potential source of bias. Each of these points in the decisionmaking process is a juncture requiring some aspect of critical thinking to maintain objectivity. Each of these points also is a stage where our biases influence the degree of general bias and the potential for error that enters our decisionmaking.
3.1. Challenging assumptions 4. Encouraging adult development Assumptions are what we believe to be the givens in specific situations. When managers or workers are planning they must constantly reassess the assumptions they hold about the stability and reliability of the context in which they are working and the resources available to them to reach their goal. If the assumptions are not correct, serious mishaps can occur or important opportunities may be missed. Each of the characteristics of critical thinking identified here are driven by questioning the assumptions that we hold. Not all of the assumptions that we hold must be abandoned, but they must be examined each time we set new goals and try to find solutions to problems. Understanding these assumptions helps us to evaluate the probability of success of our plans prior to taking action. 3.2. Controlling judgmental bias Controlling judgmental bias also is crucial for predicting potential productivity levels that may be achieved and the extent of the potential business and the specific market value of one's goods or services. What might be helpful here is to pinpoint some places in decisionmaking that are most susceptible to judgmental bias. Bias in making judgments may occur at various stages of decisionmaking. First, the general background of the decisionmaker shapes the conceptualization of the kind of decision being made. Second, the selection and rejection of information used to evaluate a situation contributes to an outcome. Third, the organization and processing of data influences the generalizations or conclusions that might be drawn about a situation. Fourth, the general attitude and level of wishful thinking for
Adult development is related to change that leads to self-actualization and an integrated sense of ego. It does not necessarily have an end point (Strom et aI., 1987). Instead it appears to be a phenomenon consisting of continuing change and growth that is a response to shifting occurrences of life and work. To the extent that managers and workers develop the critical thinking skills delineated in the first part of this article there is a greater potential for further individual development and greater individual and collective productivity in the workplace. The kind of adult development we are interested in manifests itself in at least three areas: (1) personal growth; (2) interrelational growth; and (3) task-related behaviors. Each of these dimensions has some bearing on an individual's work and also coincide with the development and use of the critical thinking skills identified in the first part of this paper. Crucial to each of these dimensions of development is an underlying principle that is comparable to challenging assumptions and controlling judgmental bias. This principle is that individuals develop the ability to transform their perspective relative to an issue or a problem, and to shift focus from self to the problem. Transforming one's perspective means recognizing multiple points of view and selecting a workable perspective. Doing this helps to remove too much self-centered thinking that may interfere with a thorough analysis of the situation as well as an outcome that is not realistic in light of the available resources. Being able to transform selfperspective mUltiplies the potential for various solutions to a problem or the number of plans that may be generated. Transforming perspectives is akin to the underlying habits of challenging
L. Dagostino. 1. Carifio / Work 8 (1997) 181-187
assumptions and controlling judgmental bias, both of which require maintaining distance from a situation or problem to advance toward the goal. In the area of personal growth we see the development of: (a) general maturity; (b) acceptance of responsibility; (c) increased sense of security; and (d) more taking initiative. General maturity, where there is sound thinking and emotional stability, contributes to a rationality in thinking so that distinction between emotional and intellectual responses to a situation are made (Overstreet, 1984). This general maturity leads to accepting responsibility where individuals see things through to completion and guide the process in which one is engaged. The individual realistically and accurately assesses and takes into account the impact and the consequences of recommended changes, actions and non-actions. As the individual achieves well-defined goals established by taking responsibility a greater sense of security develops. Having this security means having an inner strength that is devoid of excessive anxiety about oneself and about the skills related to a particular job. If secure, one can be challenged and confidently defend one's position without constantly seeking the approval of others. Developing this sense of security is essential to making independent decisions with confidence. This confidence leads to the individual taking the initiative on solving more problems or developing the plans needed to reach more goals. This means generating ideas and having the motivation to act upon those ideas. Individuals who take initiative generally are goal-oriented people who focus on particular situations, determine actions as important or unimportant to a large enterprise, and then propose plans. A high degree of self-management and discipline usually accompanies taking initiative because responsibility for the success of a plan rests with the initiator. Perseverance, functioning autonomously and flexibility are central to maintaining effort, taking independent action and implementing plans. Without taking initiatives guided by some of these characteristics, there is not a clearly calculated response to everyday fluctuations in the workplace. In addition to personal growth, development also should occur in interrelational growth where
185
the individual learns several things. They are: (1) socialization to the general culture; (2) socialization to peers and supervisors; (3) balancing selfinterest with the common good; (4) balancing cooperative-competitive behavior; (5) sharing efforts with others; (6) engaging in give and take exchanges; and (7) exhibiting highly supportive and helpful behavior. Socialization to the general culture as well as to peers and supervisors means that managers and workers develop an understanding of the general attitudes about work in a particular environment. This requires the individual to recognize the function that work serves in a particular community, either ethnic or socio-economic. Doing so influences planning, goal-setting and the selection of strategies for problem-solving. For example, when work is seen as a means to making a living, rather than as an extension of the individual's identity and worth, incentives take a different form. The desire to meet performance standards derive from a different source, too. In the case of unskilled day laborers we may not see the same degree of self-motivation and direction as we do with more skilled, creative or professional help. Managers as well as workers must find ways to integrate their skills and attitudes with peers and supervisors. Where projects are extensive, each person must be willing to contribute and accept responsibility for the contribution. Because most work environments need some degree of cooperation, the individuals involved must have formal and informal mechanisms for synthesizing different points of view and resolving conflicts so that tasks can be completed and the product can take a useful form. Both balancing self-interest with the common good and balancing cooperative-competitive behavior govern the nature of group dynamics in the workplace. When there is much individual recognition and reward, a competitive spirit enters the interactions. Such a competitive spirit may spur productivity and higher performance. However, if individuals pursue goals in the name of self-interest rather than the common good, some of the necessary cooperative behavior for various projects breaks down and less harmonious working environments may emerge. However,
186
L. Dagostino.]. Carifio j Work 8 (J997) 181-187
some group competition can produce a multiplicity of creative ideas that enhance problem-solving and productivity. Sharing efforts with others, a form of cooperative behavior usually improves everyone's individual or group effort and has positive long-term efforts for general production. Correlated with this sharing behavior is the willingness to give and take in making contributions so that no one person is contributing more than the others. Finally, when new projects are being implemented everyone involved will be learning. This requires that the individual be supportive of each other's efforts and help them when help is needed. People withdraw from taking risks and initiative if they are always confronted with the unsupportive naysayer or critic. Finally, there also seems to be some corresponding development in task-related behaviors. At least several areas seem to be affected. They are: (1) general productivity; (2) skills, knowledge and proficiency; (3) setting standards for performance; (4) problem-solving ability; (5) learning to created manageable tasks; and (6) tolerating and managing ambiguity in the task environment. The goal of all work is productivity, both in terms of quantity and quality, where productivity is a measure of the individual's contribution to the overall effort. Productivity is measureable and may have a variety of indicators. The good manager implements strategies that guide workers to maintain a pre-determined level of production in terms of profits or services. To be productive both managers and workers must demonstrate a minimum level of skill that can be improved upon with training and experience. Skill is usually enhanced by having related knowledge and it is assessed to be adequate when the individual demonstrates an acceptable level of proficiency that is, where the tasks are completed in an efficient and effective manner at an acceptable cost of resources. As managers and workers develop, they begin to have a sense of the acceptable standards to be achieved. At first, these standards may be imposed from the outside. But, eventually, individuals must establish some internal guide as they approach new tasks so that measures of achieving acceptable productivity are
inherent in all of their functioning. In addition to these three basic task-related behaviors we see three more complex behaviors emerge. The first one, problem-solving ability, is demanded when things do not go smoothly from start to finish. When problems occur people must be able to reason their way to resolutions for productivity to be maintained. This means having technical and interpersonal skill to move things along. It also means having the skill to frame the problem so that potential solutions can be tried at minimal cost. The next more complex task-related behavior is learning to create manageable tasks. Often goals represent the end product of several intermediate tasks neither manageable in one 'fell swoop' nor by one or two people. Knowing how to delegate the work and sequence the activities is crucial physically and psychologically to completing most tasks. Part of strategic planning involves this kind of behavior or tasks will be too overwhelming to carry out. Handling increasingly complex tasks is the long range goal of creating manageable tasks or dividing large tasks into more manageable ones. The final task-related behavior that is stimulated by critical thinking is tolerating and managing ambiguity in the task environment. Sometimes the next step in pursuing new ventures is not clear, and it emerges only as you move toward the goal. Some problems will create confusion and require careful rethinking for resolution. Tolerating the uncertainty and ambiguity of uncontrollable forces that underlie some of this confusion is crucial to creative management and work. 5. The workplace
Achieving the kind of adult development described here means developing and incorporating the previously identified characteristics of critical thinking into our everyday functioning. It means increasing behaviors that transform perspectives on a problem so that various points of view are examined carefully and as objectively as possible. Judgmental bias must be assessed and controlled for these aspects of adult development to merge because they require an openness that is contrary to the concept of bias.
L. Dagostino, j, Carifio / Work 8 (J997) 181-187
All of these characteristics of thinking and development have a place in creating the conditions for effective management and work in the workplace. The type of workplace that encourages the development described also supports innovation, creativity and flexibility, all of which are products of critical thinking and necessary for a productive workplace. References Brookfield, S.D. (1981) Developing Critical Thinkers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
187
Cross, K.P. (1987) Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation and Facilitating Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hogarth, R (1980) Judgement and Choice. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Jaques, E. and Cason, K. (1994) Human Capabilities. Virginia: Cason Hall. Merriam, S.E. and Caffarella, R.S. (1991) Learning In Adulthood. San Fransico: Jossey-Bass. Overstreet, H.A. (1984) The Mature Mind. New York: W.W. Norton. Paul, R (1993) Critical Thinking. California: Foundation For Critical Thinking. Strom, RD., Bernard, H.W. and Strom, S.K. (1987) Human Development and Learning. New York: Human Sciences Press.
